
Class EAJiiJk. 

Book , A ? , 



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MINION OF CANADA. 



A STUDY OF ANNEXATION. 



a/7 

7 • 1 



A DISSERTATION IN PART FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SCHOOL OF 

POLITICAL SCIENCE, COLUMBIA 

COLLEGE. 



WILLIAM BENFORD AITKEN, M. A. col. 




T~I033 



OCT 28 1912 



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CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. page. 

CHAPTER I.— HISTORICAL. 

Competition for North America 7 

The Old Regimes 10 

CHAPTER II.— ETHNICAL. 

Race 20 

Religion ':'. V: . . % " 30 

Education . * 44 

* »* «N.. •«(*! 

CHAPTER III.— GEOGRAPHICAL. 

Topography 54 

Climate and Products 56 

CHAPTER IV. -LEGAL AND INDUSTRIAL. 

Laws 70 

Financial and Administrative Institutions 72 

Communication and Commerce 76 

CHAPTER V.— POLITICAL. 

Constitution 81 

Imperial Federation 92 

Independence 94 

Annexation 99 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 104 



INTRODUCTION. 



At a time when so much is said about independ- 
ence or annexation for Canada, and national pride 
declaims a great deal about "manifest destiny" and 
the glory of a North American Republic, it may be 
of interest to examine the progress of the United 
States and Canada and the relations which they bear 
to one another at the present day. 

In a discussion of the advisability of annexation 
no attempt will be made to assert any theories as. 
to the future, but those brought forward by indue 
tion through the historical, comparative and statistical 
methods. 

Thus the reader may see the influence that his- 
tory, the principal of these three methods, has had 
upon Canada's people and present political situation. 
For history is the useful instructor of nations and 
its lessons derived from antiquity are of inestimable 
value to the modern statesman. Therefore the true 
historian and political writer endeavors to regard the 
facts and events that present themselves to his know- 
ledge with impartial eyes, accepting neither Catholic 
nor Protestant accounts of religious or political move- 
ment without due allowance for prejudice, and aiming 
above all to give a just interpretation of all con- 
flicting circumstances. 

The method by comparison will enable us to see 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

the difference between the two countries and observe 
what traits the peoples possess in common, in arts, 
manners and habits, and the causes that have been 
at work in the New World to make several of these 
traits differ in various degrees. 

The statistical method, though often of less in- 
terest, is useful in obtaining exact facts and their 
deductions, and must consequently be used with the 
other methods. 

In treating of the organization of a state we must 
see what has been its development and thus fore- 
cast its future. The state must be regarded as a 
unity embodying in itself the three unities of people, 
territory and government. 

Therefore, since this unity in its larger significa- 
tion is represented by the word nation, we can best 
determine whether it is advisable to make one great 
Republic of the United States and the Dominion of 
Canada, by seeing how far the two countries co-incide 
in geographical, ethnical and political characters. 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA 

A STUDY OF ANNEXATION. 



CHAPTER I.— HISTORICAL. 

COMPETITION FOR NORTH AMERICA. 

The English King Henry VII. had experienced a 
leering of keen regret that the petition of Columbus 
liad been refused when he sought aid from his court. 
Therefore, John Cabot and his son Sebastian were 
freely given a patent under which they set sail with a 
l>and of explorers, and on the 24th of June, 1496, came 
in sight of land which Cabot hoped was India, but he 
said : " I found that the land ranne toward the north, 
which was to mee a great displeasure." * This land 
was the coast of Labrador, and Cabot had discovered 
the American continent. 

But England's right to the northern part of the 
continent by prior discovery was not valid without 
actual possession and occupation ; therefore, when the 
French settled the country a few years after, their 
title by occupancy was sustained by international 
law. They gave the name Canada to the country in 
1506, from the Indian word " Kannatha," meaning a 
collection of huts. But it was not until the explor- 
ation of John Verrazzani, in 1523, that the French 
Government encouraged the settlements of whale and 
-cod fishermen in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. 

1 "Lives of the Admirals" — Campbell. Vol. I., p. 338. 



8 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The discovery of the St. Lawrence River by Jaques 
Cartier in 153-4, and the favorable report which he 
brought back of the beautiful country on its banks, 
induced Francis I. to grant him a commission u pour P 
establissement du Canada," dated October 17, 1540. 1 
By this patent, along with one creating a viceroy or 
agent of the King, France established a permanent 
though miserable settlement, relying for its support 
upon annuities from the home government, and 
recruited in numbers by exiles and prisoners from 
France. The city of Quebec grew up about 1608 and 
became prosperous through the efforts of Samuel de 
Champlain. Montreal was settled some years later. 

In the year 1627, Cardinal Richelieu as " Superin- 
tendent-General of the Navigation and Commerce of 
France," 2 succeeded through a royal edict in forming 
a "Company of One Hundred Associates," of merchants 
and priests, to promote colonization and Christianity in 
Canada. If the King knew what he was bestowing 
he was exceedingly liberal, for he conveyed the soil of 
Canada with the monopoly of its fur trade for the 
simple consideration of fealty to the sovereign and a 
small amount of gold. 

Richelieu and Champlain, " la pere de la Nouvelle- 
France," 3 were wise enough to understand that 
Frenchmen were not suited to the task of coloniz- 
ation, and that if France was to found an empire 
it must be by civilizing the Indians, and bringing 
them under her rule. From this time it became 
the policy of France to bring the savages under 
her sway. 

The settlers in Canada traded with the Indians and 
"made no attempt to found an agricultural state." 
They penetrated farther and farther up the St.Lawrence 

1. " Histoire de la Nouvelle France " — l'Escarbot. 

2. The title in full was, ' ' Chef et Superintendent General de la Marine, 
Navigation et Commerce de France." See the introduction to Rambaud's 
" La France Coloniale." 

3. " Charlevoix's Histoire de la Nouvelle-France." 



COMPETITION FOR NORTH AMERICA. 9 

River, until at length BoSeik descended the Missis- 
sippi River in 1682 and was followed by hunters and 
Jesuit missionaries, who made many settlements. 
Thus the French possessions under the name New 
France included not only Canada "but that long strip of 
territory called Illinois and Louisiana, extending from 
the mouth of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers to the 
Gulf of Mexico, and from the Appalachian Mountains 
to the highlands west of the Mississippi. 

England about this time began to encourage 
emigration by granting patents of lands in those parts 
of the continent which she claimed, although the time 
for colonization did not come until the conflicts in her 
government were settled by the Reformation. The 
erroneous geographical descriptions in these patents or 
charters were the causes of many of the subsequent 
boundary questions. 

The Spanish claims to America can not be based on 
the discovery by Columbus or the subsequent Bull of 
Pope Alexander VI. giving to Ferdinand and Isabella 
all the New World, but their actual occupation of the 
country by the Pacific Ocean and the Gulfs of Cali- 
fornia and Mexico under the name New Spain. By 
the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, in which all nations are 
involved, Great Britain acknowledged the claims of 
Spain to her possessions in the West Indies and the 
western part of the continent, and made those arrange- 
ments which were the development of modern 
diplomacy and- maritime law, whereby both nations 
might enjoy undisturbed their respective rights of 
navigation, commerce and fishery. 

By the tenth article of this treaty, France ceded to 
England "to be possessed in full right forever, the 
Bay and Straights of Hudson, together with all lands, 
seas, sea-coasts, rivers and places situated in the said 
bay and straights," as well as Nova Scotia and New- 
foundland, but retained Canada and Louisiana. 

Thus the colonies grew up in the New World and 



10 THE DOMINION OP CANADA. 

• 

were augmented in population by those fleeing from 
the political and religious disturbances in Europe. 
Side by side the Eomance and the Anglo Saxon races 
became prosperous under very different circumstances. 
The one had no popular government for many years, 
after its foundation; the other was self -organized and 
self-governed. The religion of one though sincere and 
moral in its influence was a religion that clung to 
forms, and to an imposing ritual ; the religion of the 
other was far from -that of Rome both in form and 
spirit and claimed to be guided by the simple inter- 
pretation of the Bible. 



THE OLD REGIMES. 

We now arrive at that period of history when the 
religious and political character of Canada be^an to 
assume that form which has influenced its destiny. 
This is the period when America began to receive 
steadily increasing numbers of immigrants, seeking in 
a new country better and surer means of living. They 
were the Puritans and Quakers from England; the 
Huguenots and Jesuits of France, the most daring of 
Spanish adventurers, the most restless of French ex- 
plorers — exiles from all nations fleeing from whatever 
was conscientiously or politically extreme in the society 
of Europe. 

The causes of the development of the continent^ 
and in particular of those parts which are now the 
United States, are to be found not merely in the physi- 
cal capabilities of the country, or in the ample room for 
growing numbers, but in the desire of freedom and com- 
mercial enterprise which the settlers brought with them. 
The spirit of commerce pushed on the population into 
the wilderness, thus opening new channels of trade, and 
creating cities. 

The Canadian system was grafted upon the feudal 



THE OLD REGIMES. 11 

and agricultural; hence the mixed character of the 
country combining the elements of monarchy with 
democracy. Liberty of conscience and worship was 
not permitted, and although the Huguenots would 
rather have settled in a country under their King, they 
were not allowed to do so. The duty of spreading 
Christianity was permitted only to the Roman Catho- 
lics, and their power was sufficient to exclude entirely 
the liberal and republican tendencies of the Hugue- 
nots. Political influence was ever present on the side 
of the Catholics, and to the Society of Jesus was given 
the entire control of ecclesiastical affairs. Although 
we may conclude from a study of the Jesuits that they 
were sincere in their mission of introducing Catholic- 
ism among the savage tribes, still it was the possession 
of the fur trade that gave impetus to their efforts. 
Placed side by side with civilizing influences there was 
left to the Indians no compromise of rites. They had 
mistaken darkness for light. They had worshiped the 
great spirits of the Sun and Moon instead of the True 
God and Saviour. They were in error. They must 
abandon their system at once. This the tribes who 
spread along the shores and rivers of Canada were 
told, and the Jesuits kept nothing back. They founded 
churches among them, and translated the Roman Ritual 
and Prayer Book into their language. 

It was impossible for the French and Indians to co- 
exist on the same territory. History proved it. The 
Indians could only live in prosperity by their own laws 
and customs. It only remained for the colonists to 
push them farther into the wilderness as civilization 
advanced. As the colonists increased in numbers, they 
desired more territory, which the Indians did not hesi- 
tate to sell as long as their own domain seemed almost 
boundless. But although many paid for the lands 
which they took from the Indians, there were others 
who drove them without mercy from their ancient 
homes and the graves of their forefathers. They ob- 



12 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

tained per fas ant nefas the territories marked out by 
their royal charters without regard to the previous 
" rights " of the uncivilized occupants of the soil. 
There are some who think that the claims of the Indi- 
ans were to be preferred to those of the settlers and 
would have retained them in their original homes, but 
the accepted doctrine of international law confirms the 
right of civilized nations to the lands of those who live 
in a savage state. In opening up new realms it is 

"The simple plan 
That he shall take who has the power, 
And he shall keep who can." 

On a continent of vast resources it is the duty of a 
civilized nation to cultivate the soil and invite civilized 
men to its shores. A.nd between two civilized nations 
the one that first takes possession has the better title 
to new territory. 

In the words of Francis Parkman in The Old Regime 
in Canada : " The Jesuits had essayed a fearful task — 
to convert the Iroquois to God and to the King, thwart 
the Dutch heretics of the Hudson, save souls from hell, 
avert ruin from Canada, and thus raise their order to a 
place of honor and influence both hard earned and well 
earned." The mission stations of the Jesuits formed 
one of the worst systems of government — that of the 
theocratic state — and it is not strange that Richelieu's 
Company of New France made no political progress. 

The Colony increased to only one hundred and five 
persons, and only two families were able " to support 
themselves from the products of the soil; the rest lived 
on supplies from France." Cruelty toward the Indians 
caused desperate retaliation, and the colonists were 
-compelled to build their settlements close together, 
and cultivate only the land near them. This accounts 
for the peculiar military style of some of the old towns. 

The settlements in Canada were not only in danger 



THE OLD REGIMES. 13 

of destruction by the Indians, but there was a bitter 
domestic quarrel between the Jesuits who controlled 
Quebec and the priests of St. Sulpice. The Jesuits, 
who for nearly thirty years had constituted the Cana- 
dian church, strongly objected to the appointment as 
bishop of Father Queylus of the Sulpitian order. 
The dispute was quieted for a time by the choice of a 
bishop in the person of the great Francois Xavier de 
Laval — Montmorency, Abbe de Montigny. 

At that time the Catholics of France were divided 
into two great parties — the Papal party, who believed 
that the Pope was Christ's vicegerent, supreme over 
all earthly rulers and vested with all sacerdotal 
authority ; and the Gallican party, who maintained 
that to the King belonged the temporal and to the 
Church the spiritual power, while the bishops had an 
independent commission from heaven. 

The Jesuits were bound to the Papal or Ultra- 
montane party, and labored for the support of the 
Holy See ; they condemned the Gallican liberties and 
were aided by the court of France. Laval was of the 
Papal party and came to Canada, not as Bishop of 
Quebec, but as Vicar Apostolic of the Pope, thus 
placing Canada under the direct jurisdiction of the 
Pope. Therefore, the Church of Rome has always 
endeavored to retain its control over the government 
of Canada, while always maintaining its liberty and 
independence in that country. 

Laval was -a devout Roman Catholic, and believed 
■firmly in the principles of his church, that he, as 
Vicar of the Pope, was Christ's Vicar on earth, and 
that so far as Canada extended it was his duty to 
God to uphold the Papal supremacy. He came at 
a time when the Company of New France had clearly 
shown its uselessness, and established an ecclesiastical 
■control over Canada which has always existed, and is 
the foundation of the great power and influence of the 
■Church of Rome in that countiy at the present day. 



14 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The influence of the Jesuits, and the high birth of 
Laval, gave him great strength at Court. He went 
to France, and succeeded through an edict passed by- 
Louis XIII. in having the government of the colony- 
vested in a Superior Council, composed of five per- 
sons, nominated by Laval, and by a Governor, whom 
he had also chosen, who should assist the Governor 
and principal ecclesiastic in the performance of their 
functions. The agent of the King was the intendant. 
This council had legislative power subject to the 
ultimate control of the parent state, and a supreme 
jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases according to 
the forms and usages prescribed by the Parliament of 
Paris. The Company of New France was dissolved. 

Thus Laval strengthened the power of the Church 
over Canada and used the Governor and Council as a 
tool to carry out his designs. He introduced a system 
of removable cures under the will of the superior,, 
which prevails in most of the parishes at this day. 
But the most lasting and effective method of enriching 
the Church was introduced with the feudal system, 
whereby all lands were granted en fief, as manors or 
eu roture subject to the servitudes which the law ex- 
acted from the vassal to his lord paramount. Fines 
were paid to the lord on the gale of inheritances, and 
the right of pre-emption was reserved to the seigneur,. 
or in some cases the heirs of the vendor. Lands were 
granted out as fiefs to those who would carry settlers 
with them, and the holders were the peasantry or 
habitants who paid small rents and did military service 
in protecting the feofdom from the Indians. The lord 
reserved for himself the right of trading in furs and 
fishing. 

The results of this system have been to check the- 
transfer of property and force large estates into the 
hands of a few. Vast tracts of land in the best and 
most beautiful parts of Canada were granted to the 
Church, to meet the expenses of the clergy and the- 



THE OLD REGIMES. 15 

support of ecclesiastical schools. There were no schools 
under a general system of education supported by 
local rates or taxes, except the seminaries, and they 
were under the exclusive control of the Church, which 
imposed for their support a tithe of one-thirteenth 
on all products of the soil or forest for their support. 
In addition to this a portion of the salaries of the 
cures was paid by the King. 

In granting letters patent for the establishment of 
the Seminary at Quebec, the King distinctly limited 
the college to one " In which shall be educated and 
trained young clerks, who shall appear fit for the 
service of God, and to whom, for this purpose shall be 
taught the manner of administering the sacraments ; 
the method of catechising, and of preaching modern 
theology, according to apostolical doctrines ; the cere- 
monies of the church ; the full Gregorian chaunt ; and 
other matters appertaining to the duties of the good 
ecclesiastic." 1 

The grants to the Roman Catholic Church were 
made in mortmain. That of 1677, establishing the 
college at Montreal, included the whole of the island 
and seigneurie of that name. Those creating the 
Greater and Lesser Seminaries were also very liberal. 
These seminaries still exist and are the most impor- 
tant Catholic institutions on the continent. 

Francis Parkman, in " The Old Regime in Canada," 
in treating of the manner in which Laval disposed of 
his vast estates,- says : 2 " Some of these he sold or 
exchaged ; others he retained till the year 1680, when 
he gave them, with nearly all else that he then posses- 
sed, to his seminary at Quebec. The. lands with 
which he thus endowed, it included the seigniories of 
the Petite Nation, the island of Jesus and Beaupre. 
The last is of great extent and at the present day of 
great value. Beginning a few miles below Quebec, it 

1. "Edits et Ordinances." tome 1., p. 25. 

2. p. 164. 



16 THE DOMINION OP CANADA. 

borders the St. Lawrence for a distance of sixteen 
leagues, and is six leagues in depth, measured from the 
river." From these sources the seminary now called 
Laval University draws an abundant revenue, '' though 
its segniorial rights were commuted on the recent 
extinction of the feudal tenure in Canada." 

Dependence taught the colonies to lean upon the 
mother country ; and thus retarded natural prosperity. 
They lived under a despotism, political, religious and 
commerical. The interference of the government in 
the local affairs of Canada was carried to the extreme. 
Every household was under the eye of the officials or 
priests, and some of the orders of the council declared 
that a chimney should be swept, cattle should be 
killed, and even " that besides white bread and light 
brown bread, all bakers shall hereafter make dark 
brown bread whenever the same shall be required." 
There were many peculiar orders regulating religious 
matters. The colonists were strictly forbidden to 
quarrel in church, and in order that there might be 
perfect harmony dnring the service the pews were 
assigned in the order of rank and precedence. 

France, under the despotic government of the Bour- 
bons, could not be a mother of prosperous colonies. 
The Peace of 1763, and consequent renunciation of all 
claims of France to Canada, marks a period of new and 
healthy growth in that country. The fourth article of 
the treaty declares that : 

" His Most Christian Majesty renounces all preten- 
tions which he has heretofore formed, or might form 
to Nova Scotia or Acadia, in all its parts, and guaran- 
tees the whole of it and all its dependencies to the 
King of Great Britain. Moreover, His Most Christian 
Majesty cedes and guarantees to His said Britannic 
Majesty in full right, Canada with all its dependencies, 
as well as the Island of Cape Breton, and all the other 
Islands and Coasts in the Gulf and River St. Lawrence." 

By this treaty Spain gave Florida to England and 



THE OLD REGIMES. 17 

received in exchange from France, Louisiana beyond 
the Mississippi. This territory was retroceded to 
France in 1800, and transferred by France to the 
United States in 1803, "in the name of the French 
Republic, forever and in full sovereignty." 

The exploration and settlement of the west and 
northwest was brought about by the many companies 
engaged in the fur trade. The Hudson's Bay Company 
was chartered in 1670 by a grant of Charles II. to his 
cousin, Prince Rupert, and after the English took Can- 
ada it obtained a monopoly of almost the entire fur 
trade of North America. The Northwest Company, 
the Pacific Fur Company and other traders were thus 
driven to the regions of the Rocky Mountains. 

The several discoveries made in the northwest by 
explorers in search of a supposed northern passage 
between Hudson's Bay and the Pacific Ocean, caused 
Russia to send several expeditions under the direction 
of a Siberian and Kamtchatkan fur company, to the 
shores of America. In 1763 Russia established trad- 
ing posts in Alaska. 1 Thus Russia based her claims 
to American territory on " The title of first discovery ; 
the title of first occupation ; and in the last place, that 
which results from a peaceable and uncontested posses- 
sion of more than half a century." 2 And both England 
and the United States by the St. Petersburg Conven- 
tion of 1824, recognized the territorial rights of Russia 
as far south as 54° 40' north latitude. By the treaty 
of March 30, 1867, Russia ceded Alaska to the United 
States. 

England's supremacy gave to Canada commerce, 
cultivation and security, but her first policy was 
weak and uncertain. She found herself possessed 
of a country entirely different in language, religion and 
constitution, that had imbibed French politics from 



1. British and Foreign State Papers, 1821-22, p. 484. 

2. Idem, p. 485. 



18 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

the cradle and still retained the hereditary antipathy 
toward her, but instead of insisting that British law 
should be enforced and the English language and 
religion encouraged, she granted her newly conquered 
subjects every privilege in her power. Thus she 
allowed Canada to retain those influences of feudalism 
and Papalism which, as we shall see, produced the 
characteristic peculiarities of Canadian politics. 

The freedom of local government allowed the 
other colonies in America was the cause of their 
increase in population and wealth, and of that power 
to rely on their own resources which asserted itself at 
the time of our independence. An entirely opposite 
state of affairs existed in Canada; they had never been 
accustomed to think or act for themselves, and were 
in constant need of aid from the court of France. 
The monarchic principles under which they were born 
were firmly implanted in the minds of the Canadian 
people, and they were not capable of self-government 
or of comprehending the benefits which they could 
derive from joining in a movement for the assumption 
of imperial powers. 

After the American War of Independence in the 
treaty as determined on September 3, 1783, England 
made the following concessions as to North America : 

1. The Independence of the thirteen United States 
and its participation in the Newfoundland fisheries. 
The Navigation of the Mississippi was thrown open to 
both nations. 

2. France obtained participation in the Newfound- 
land fisheries, and the isles of St. Pierre and Miquelou. 

3. Spain retained Florida and received back terri- 
tories that had been conquered. 

The treaty made many regulations of commerce, 
and the period therefore is one of development and 
prosperity both on the continent and in Europe. The 



THE OLD REGIMES. 19 

American Republic prospered and England soon found 
that instead of losing by the separation, she gained by 
,a commerce with America which proved a source of 
great wealth. 



CHAPTER II— ETHNICAL. 

EACE. 

There is a difference in the ethnical characters of 
the two countries. Comparison will enable us to 
determine how far they differ. Thus we may see the 
origin of the peoples from early colonization and the 
effect upon them of a large foreign immigration. The 
subject cannot, however, be fairly treated without 
attention to language ; for the character and compre- 
hensiveness of a language tells the character of the 
people who speak it, and plays an important part in 
the formation of a nation. The languages of later 
immigrants come in contact with those of earlier set- 
tlers, and where the Teutonic elements predominate 
English is likely to prevail. 

A Teutonic people has laid the foundations of 
freedom and civilization in America, and by the usual 
custom of that people Christianity and liberal educa- 
tion have been diffused. The principles of self- 
government in local and general affairs have trained 
men in the exercise of their public duties and taught 
the necessity of giving that security to person and 
property so firmly guaranteed by our constitution. 
The colonies were governed by the utmost strictness 
in religious and political matters, but underneath an 
apparent aristocracy there were capacities of self- 
government which developed into a state. The people 
gradually formed the government, and therefore, being 
satisfied and prosperous, the corner stone of a great 
empire was securely laid. It is not necessary to re- 



RACE. 21- 

peat the history of the Anglo-American people from' 
the year 1620, when the emigrants landed at Ply- 
mouth^ Rock, to the War of the Revolution, when 7 
following the example of their Pilgrim ancestors, they 
formed a "civil body politick," and founded a federa- 
tion of states which seems destined to hand down to 
posterity the language and the laws of England. 
Democracy was the only practical and proper consti- 
tution for a country without a past. The government 
of the United States developed from the needs and 
exigencies of the people, that of Canada was firmly 
established for ruling its people even long before 
those people existed and their wants were known. 

The laws and usages which France established in 
Canada formed the character of that country and the- 
habits, manners, moral education and prejudices of its 
people, trained under the French administration, were* 
radically different from our own. This difference was; 
shown when the people of Canada refused to join with; 
the colonists of New England in asserting their inde- 
pendence. It was because of their Romance extrac- 
tion and their training in a school of monarchy and 
theocracy. They did not know the full meaning of 
freedom or how they could better their political con- 
dition. They were becoming accustomed to the Eng- 
lish yoke, and had already found it more agreeable- 
than that of France. It was not strange that they 
did not wish to make a hazardous experiment and 
link their fortunes with a people with whom they had 
few sympathies or common interests. The French 
and Indian war had left a feeling of dislike toward 
the inhabitants of New England, since there had al- 
ways been trouble between the French and English 
colonies. On the other hand, when Canada was "con- 
quered by the British, the New England colonists had 
no longer the spirit of loyalty to the mother country. 

Congress endeavored repeatedly to enlist the people- 
of Canada in aid of the revolution and caused circulars 



22 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

and eloquent addresses to be printed and distributed 
among them. The address of the General Congress 
of October 26, 1774, while showing that the Americans 
knew the great obstacles to union, tries to smooth 
them over. It contains this reference to the religion of 
Canada : " We are too well acquainted with the liber- 
ality distinguishing your nation, to imagine, that dif- 
ference of religion will prejudice you against a hearty 
-amity with us. You know, that the transcendent 
nature of freedom elevates those who unite in the 
cause above all such low minded infirmities. The 
Swiss Cantons furnish a memorable proof of this truth. 
Their union is composed of Catholic and Protestant 
States living in the utmost concord and peace with one 
another, and thereby enabled, ever since they bravely 
vindicated their freedom, to defy and defeat every 
tyrant that has invaded them." 

The committee sent to work among them reported 
that the population was uninfluenced, as only one out 
of five hundred could read ; and Dr. Franklin with his 
usual wit wrote back that the next mission sent up to 
Canada had better be "composed of schoolmasters." 
While attending the negotiations of the Treaty of 
Peace at Paris, Dr. Franklin urged the giving up of 
Canada to the United States and argued that there 
could be no solid and permanent peace without it; 
that it would cost the British government more to keep 
it than it was worth ; that it would be a source of 
future difficulties with the United States ; that some 
day or other it must belong to them ; and that it was 
the interest of both parties that it should be ceded in 
the treaty of peace. Yet he did not urge the cession 
.as a necessary condition of peace, and it was not much 
dwelt upon in the negotiations, but on the rights of 
Americans to fish in the Canadian waters he laid 
special stress. 

The people of the United States are for the most 
part of Teutonic extraction, and although the different 



RACE. 23 

branches are not fully amalgamated, the Anglo-Ameri- 
can element is rapidly absorbing the others. The 
different elements once so conspicuous in various 
localities are now hardly distinguishable, and we sel- 
dom refer to the English of New England, the Welsh 
of Pennsylvania, the Dutch of New York, the Ger- 
mans of Pennsylvania, the Scotch of New Jersey, or 
the numerous other races who first cultivated the soil. 
The immigrants who have arrived on the Atlantic 
shores at different periods have made their settlements 
among the English speaking inhabitants, and all learn- 
ing their language, had gradually become assimilated 
to them in manners and habits. Then, as the Eastern 
States became more crowded, the native-born left for 
new openings and younger cities in the West. The 
decrease in the population of the New England States 
would be very perceptible but for the fact that their 
places are taken by French Canadians. But although 
Ave can not perceive by ethnical character the original 
populations in the States, it is a noticeable fact that 
immigrants seek those parts, which are similar in geo- 
graphical character to their native countries. Thus, 
the Swedes and Norwegians settle on farms in our 
northern states, as the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Wis- 
consin. The Germans settle in the states along the 
Mississippi and Missouri Kivers, and with the Scotch 
and English make good farmers. The Irish remain in 
the cities and generally move toward the New Eng- 
land States in preference to the far West. The 
Italians also are inclined to swarm in cities, and, being 
of Romance extraction, do not form a congenial ele- 
ment in a community. 

There is a distinction between Anglo-Canadians and 
French-Canadians. The former have retained a pre- 
dilection for the English manners, language, tastes 
and religion; while the latter have become attached 
to their original French habits and language. The 
French-Canadian element predominates in certain 



24 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

localities, especially in the Province of Quebec, and 
has a decided influence on the entire social and 
religious life. 

This element is "an old stationary society in the 
midst of a new and advancing world." In many re- 
spects the French in Canada are quite different from 
the French of the present day in France ; those of 
France are more advanced in modern ideas. The first 
settlers in Canada quitted Europe before the great 
revolution of 1797 had turned the Frenchman into a 
progressive being. The English care little about them 
and hold almost all public offices. Therefore the French 
population is opposed to the English, and there is be- 
tween the two little social intercourse, and no good 
understanding or co-operation. The English are more 
practical and energetic, and are therefore richer ; the 
French do not advance beyond theories. They are 
very proud since many are descended from the old 
seigneurs, and desire to maintain old laws, especially 
those respecting landed property, by which the activity 
of the English is everywhere impeded. 

The population of French origin in Canada, accord- 
ing to the census of 1881, is 1,299,161. The great 
majority remain in the province of Quebec, which is 
thoroughly French, having a French speaking popula- 
tion of 1,075,130, out of a total population of 1,359,027. 
Their language is spoken throughout the province, in 
many places in the Dominion, and in the Federal Par- 
liament. Consequently, laws are printed in French as 
well as in English, and both languages are used in 
debates, public meetings and courts. 1 The families of 
the French are large and increase rapidly, and in the 
Province of Quebec they buy up the farms of the Eng- 
lish who move to the west. The clergy encourage them 
in this, since lands occupied by Catholics must pay 
tithe. Families of twelve children are common in French- 
Canada, and those of twenty are not rare. Therefore, 

1. B. N. A. Act, sec. 123. 



RACE. 25 

although the English people predominate, the chances 
of an overbalancing increase are equally in favor of the 
French-Canadians. 1 

Prof. Rambaud, of the Faculty of Letters of Paris, 
says : 

" Les Franco-Canadiens ont conserve non seulement 
leur langue, mais l'amour de la France. Sans doute 
ils sont de loyaux sujets l'Angleterre, et la protection 
britannique est une de leurs garanties contre les am- 
bitions de la Republique americaine. Comme drapeau 
national, a cote du drapeau britannique, ils ont le 
drapeau francais : non celui de l'ancienne monarchic, 
mais celui de la France de 1789. Dans leurs fetes 
nationales, ce sont les pavilions et les orinarnnies tri- 
colores qui pavoisent les monuments, et c'est le drapeau 
tricolore qui flotte dans les manifestations publiques. 
Plus d'une fois deja, dans la guerre du Mexique, dans 
la querre de 1870, de nombreux volontaires canadiens 
sont venus partager nos dangers. 

" Sur un autre point du continent americain a l'em- 
bouchure de ce Mississippi que decouvrit Cavelier de 
La Salle, dans notre ancienne colonie de Louisiane, 
autour des villes de Saint-Louis et de la Nouvelle-Or- 
leans, notre langue s'est maintenue egalement dans la 
decendance d'une poignee de nos anciens colons : elle 
compte aujourd'hui environ 200,000 ames." 2 

Do the inhabitants of Quebec cherish the hope of 
establishing a French Nation ? They are an independ- 
ent element in the Dominion, and on many domestic 
questions are antagonistic to the central government 
and would probably remain in the same attitude to- 
ward our own, should annexation take place. In the 
other provinces, although the French language does 
not predominate, its influence is greatly felt. 

The motion brought before the present session of 

1. Rambaud's "La France Coloniale, Introduction Historique," p. 37. 

2. Rambaud's " La France Coloniale," p. 37. 



26 THE DOMINION OP CANADA. 

the Dominion Parliament by Mr. Dalton McCarthy, a 
conservative, proposing the abolition of the law recog- 
nizing French as the official language of the North- 
west Territories, brought forcibly before the public the 
strong desire of the French population to retain every- 
thing French. Mr. McCarthy and his followers argued 
that it was necessary for the peace and prosperity of 
the country for Anglo-Saxon institutions to predomin- 
ate ; but they were unsuccessful, since the dual lan- 
guage has been fastened upon the courts, leaving the 
use of the French language in the discretion of the 
provincial legislature. 

The French language in Canada has not remained 
as it was spoken by the first settlers. It appears to 
have formed itself into a conventional dialect which is 
not pure French, and is known as Canadian French. 
When the French traders communicated with the Ind- 
ians, they did so in a rude, simple language composed 
of the most useful words and despoiled of all case end- 
ing and syntax. There developed, therefore, in those 
parts of Canada where there was little communication 
between village and village, a dialect deprived of all 
uniformity and in which are found many Indian words 
and expressions. 

The growth of this dialect was natural and received 
encouragement from the frequent inter-marriage of the 
whites and Indians, and the consequent mixed language 
of their children. From these half-breeds or Metis 
many of the influential citizens of Canada are descended. 

The French common people who went up into 
the northwest soon adapted themselves to the ex- 
isting customs of forest life. Being superstitious and 
illiterate, they readily made friends with the Indians, 
who respected their religious and festive ceremonies. 
They took to wife the daughters of the Cree, Black- 
foot and Chippewa Indians and reared large families, 
which constitute to this day a distinct element in the 
ethnical character of the Dominion. 



RACE. 2T 

In the remote regions of British North America 
where the native tribes have not come so closely into 
contact with the French or English-speaking people 
as those nearer the centres of civilization, the language 
has become changed into one in which the French 
language does not predominate but by natural process 
of variation, several dialects have been produced. 

This multiplicity of dialects arises from the amal- 
gamation of races of different habits and modes of 
thought, and this, with special rapidity where, among 
pioneer settlements, the art of writing hardly exists to 
form a model for words and sound. Where three or 
four settle together in a locality, one speaking French, 
another English, and a third Indian, they will invent 
a language of some kind as a means of communication , 
and in no two cases is this language exactly the same. 

It is probably for an analogous reason that the Abbe 
Clavigero found thirty-five dialects in Mexico. This 
confusion of tongues was due to the decentralized 
tribal organization of the natives of America. The 
Jesuit missionaries were greatly surprised at the number 
of languages spoken by the Indians. This is a proof 
that the original possessors of the soil had never 
attained a high state of civilization or been subject to 
any powerful political centralization. Their tendency 
to retain the uncivilized tribal form of government 
always manifests itself, and the great number of 
Indians in the northwest cannot be amalgamated with 
our population. In British Columbia and the North- 
west Territories they number 97,057. In the Monitoba 
agency there are 11,311 "Treaty Indians." 

For a few years past Icelanders have settled in the 
Dominion. In the regions near Winnipeg there are 
about 3000. Their presence was prominently brought 
to notice by a conference of the Icelandic Lutheran 
Church of America, held at Argyle, in Manitoba, in 
1889, which was well attended, and showed a surpris- 
ing growth and prosperity of this element of the popu- 



28 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

lation. The Icelanders retain the language and cus- 
toms of their home country, and it is yet to be deter- 
mined whether they would amalgamate readily with 
the Americans. 

The Scandinavians in Manitoba in 1886 numbered 
25,676, about the same proportion as the Irish, Scotch 
and English. 

Russia has contributed to Canada about 6400 Ger- 
man Mennonites who emigrated from the country by 
the Sea of Azov. And 1500 Russian Jews are be- 
coming successful farmers in the Qu' Appelle valley. 

The Chinese in Canada, numbering 4350, are al- 
most all in British Columbia. The emigration to 
America of these undesirable citizens became so great 
that they were forbidden to land in British Columbia 
jas well as on our shores. The Preamble to the Chinese 
Exclusion Act of British Columbia of 1886, which 
was disallowed by the Governor-General as unconsti- 
tutional, stated the reasons why they are not wanted 
ns follows : 1 . That the emigration is large. 2. That 
they are superior in number to our own race. 1 3. That 
they do not obey our laws. 4. That they are dissimi- 
lar in habits and manners. 5. That they evade the 
payment of taxes. 6. That they are unclean. 7. 
That they are useless in cases of emergency. 8. That 
they remove the bodies from grave yards. 9. That 
they have a bad influence on the community. 2 The 
104,541 Chinamen who are with us are distributed 
over the entire Union, while in Canada they exhibit a 
tendency to remain within the limits of British Col- 
umbia, where, as domestic servants, they supply a long 
felt want. 

Although the French in Canada number 30.40 per 
•cent, of the population, according to the last census, 
their influence is being gradually overcome by im- 

1. This refers to China's population of 530,000,000. 

2. Vide "The Invasion of Pauper Foreigners," by Arnold White. The 
Nineteenth Century, March, 1888. 



RACE. 29 

migration from the British Isles and the United States. 
The percentage of English speaking races is as follows : 
Irish, 22.18; English, 20.35; and Scotch, 16.23. # Of 
these about 10.91 per cent, were born in the British 
Isles, and about 1.74 per cent, in the United States. 
The emigrants from the British Isles and the United 
States have been instrumental in advancing the 
English language and institutions. 

After the War of the Revolution those who were 
loyal to England moved to Canada. Their number 
was larger than that of the exodus from Canada of 
those who were in sympathy with the Americans, but 
no valuable statistics of the respective numbers of these 
immigrants and emigrants at that time are available, 
nor can we determine except from the statements of 
settlers, the movements back and forth across the 
frontier. 1 

The endeavors of the British government to encour- 
age emigration to Canada met with but little success at 
first. Fully four-fifths of the colonists left Canada after 
a short residence, to seek surer and easier means of 
living in the United States. Mr. Southley in work 
from data obtained in the First Report on Emigration, 
states that " When assistance for removing to Canada 
has been afforded to poor families, either by their 
parishes or the state, a great many have availed them- 
selves of it, only for the sake of a passage, at the public 
■expense, to this promised land." 2 Thus those English 
people who would have been so beneficial to Canada in 
-counteracting the French iufluence, have augmented 
the population of the United States. 

Out of the 3,000,000 emigrants from the British 
Isles during the years 1872-86, being in the propor- 
tion of 1,760,000 English, 930,000 Irish, and 300,000 
Scotch, fully 60 per cent, went to the United States. 

1 For information concerning immigration in Canada, etc., previous to 
1828 see "Emigration," by A. C. Buchanan. 

2 "Southley's Colloquies," Vol. II., p. 278. 



30 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

20 per cent, to the Australian colonies, and less than 
12 per cent, to Canada. 1 

The Northwest offers great inducements to the 
more enterprising Americans, and when we calculate 
the American element in Canada we must add to the 
number who were born in the United States, the far 
greater number of those who have settled there after 
remaining a number of years in the United States. 

Next to the English and Americans, the Scotch 
make the best settlers in the great forests. The Irish 
are not so good since they dread the forest and prefer 
a mode of life in the large cities. The Welsh make 
better farmers than the Irish. The Germans succeed 
very well, but prefer to buy a farm already cultivated. 
The Swiss are much the same as the Germans. The 
French and Italians are totally unfit 1'or planting 
colonies in the woods. Nothing could be more alien 
to the usual habits of a Frenchman. The population 
of France is almost universally collected in cities,, 
towns and villages, even in the agricultural districts,, 
and thus from early habit as well as constitutional 
disposition, Frenchmen love society and cannot endure 
the loneliness and isolation of the frontier settle- 
ments. When they attempt to form colonies it is by 
grouping together in villages, hence their settlements* 
are seldom either extensive or vigorous. French 
emigrants find themselves happier in the cities and 
large towns. If resolved to establish themselves in the- 
country, they go to comparatively well settled neighbor- 
hoods, not to the forests of the far West. 

KELIGION. 

After comparing the history of colonization in Can- 
ada with that in this country it is not surprising that 
we should find that the influence and resources of the 



1 Vide "The Swarming of Men," by Leonard Courteney. The Nine- 
teenth Century, March, 1888. 



RELIGION. 31 

Roman Catholic church have caused it to obtain insti- 
tutions and privileges at variance with those in the 
United States, and incompatible with its government* 
The early colonists in Canada were Roman Catholics, 
and subject to ecclesiastical authority in all matters. 

In this country, on the other hand, the first colonists 
were Protestants, except a few in Lord Baltimore's 
Roman Catholic colony of Maryland. The Puritans 
were opposed to the Roman church and, as their name 
implied, they wished to see the church purified from 
every ceremony and form not clearly enjoined by the 
Bible. The Dutch who settled in New York were 
Protestants. Mr. Bancroft says : " The Reformation 
led to European settlements on the Hudson. The 
Netherlands divide with England the glory of having 
planted the first colonies in the United States ; they 
also divide the glory of having set the example of 
public freedom." 1 

The Welsh and Scotch Presbyterians, as well as the 
Quakers, were the first emigrants to Pennsylvania. 
The Scotch and Irish carried Presbyterianism into 
New Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina and Georgia. 
The Carolinas, however, were principally settled by 
the Huguenots after the revocation of the Edit of 
Nantes. In Louisiana the bigotry that checked the 
growth of French colonies, was clearly displayed when 
Louis XIV. refused to permit about four hundred 
Huguenot's families from South Carolina to settle on 
the Mississippi. The Germans and Poles who first 
came to the country were Protestants, and their de- 
scendants can be found in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, Missouri and other Western States. The 
emigrants who have come to the United States 
have been for the most part Protestants and have 
maintained the liberal religious character of the 
country. 

These references would not be complete without 

1. " History of the United States," Vol. 2, p. 256. 



32 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

mentioning the Irish Catholics who have been pouring 
into the United States by thousands. They leave their 
country of English rule, and take an active interest in 
American politics, and especially those governing local 
affairs. The freedom of religion and separation of 
Church from State, if not actually leading to the con- 
version of many to liberal ideas, at least detracts from 
the influence of the Pope over them. 

The religious denominations of this country differ in 
beliefs, but nearly all are Christian. Christianity in 
the United States is encouraged by the government, 
but there is no union between Church and State. The 
United States was the first nation to deprive itself of 
all legislative control over religion, and by the first 
amendment to the Constitution it is declared that 
"Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise there- 
of." But, although there is religious freedom and " no 
religious test is required as qualification to office," 1 the 
tendency of the government to recognize Christianity 
is evidenced by laws recognizing the Sabbath and pro- 
clamations from the Executive providing for general 
holidays in which the people are advised to thank 
God for his guiding providence and tender mercies. 

Mr. Justice Story in commenting on the sound 
policy of the government to foster and encourage 
religion, says : 

u Every American colony, from its foundation down 
to the Revolution, with the exception of Rhode Island 
(if indeed, that state be an exception), did openly, 
by the whole course of its laws and institutions, sup- 
port and sustain, in some form, the Christian religion ; 
and almost invariably gave a peculiar sanction to 
some of its fundamental doctrines. And this has con- 
tinued to be the case in some states down to the 
present period, without the slighest suspicion that it 

1. Article VI. Sec. 3. 



RELIGION. 33 

was against the principles of public law or republican 

liberty. 1 . 

" Indeed in a republic, there would seem to be a pecu- 
liar propriety in viewing the Christian religion as the 
great basis on which it must rest for its support and 
permanence, if it be, what it has ever been deemed by 
its truest friends to be, the religion of liberty.'' _ 

The principle of the United States Constitution m 
regard to religion is found in all the State Constitu- 
tions. The New York Constitution says : 

" The free exercise and enjoyment of religious pro- 
fession and worship, without discrimination or pref- 
erence, shall forever be allowed in this state to all 
mankind." m 

The United States has been in advance ot England 
in this branch of political science. In England re- 
ligious toleration was not granted to the Unitarians 
until 1813 ; to the Koman Catholics in 1829, one 
year after the abolition of the Test and Corporation 
Act ; and to the Jews in 1858. 

The established Church of England is the Protestant 
Episcopal. The retention of the doctrine of Church 
and State has been explained by the Hon. W. E. 
Gladstone by assuming that as the family relation 
demand family worship, so must the personality of 
the state require a worship peculiar to the state. 
" As the nation fulfills the great conditions of a per- 
son—a real unity of being, of deliberating, of acting, 
of suffering— and these in a definite manner, and upon 
an extended scale, and with immense moral functions 
to discharge, and influences to exercise, both upon its 
members and extrinsically ; therefore it has that kind 
of clear, large and conscious responsibility which pan 
only be met by its specifically professing a religion, 
and offering, through its organ the state, that worship 
which shall publicly sanction its acts." 2 

1 " Kent's Commentaries," p. 35. Rawle. On the Constitution. 
2. " State in its Relations with the Church.— W. E. Gladstone, Esq. 



34 



THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 



England allows its dependencies to do much as 
they please in matters of worship. Scotland is Pres- 
byterian, Ireland is Roman Catholic, although that 
church is not established there, and Canada has re- 
tained the Roman Catholic religion as the virtually 
established church. The numerical strength of the 
religious denominations in Canada is as follows : 





Roman 
Catholic. 


Churcn of 
England. 


Presby- 
terian. 


Methodist. 


Baptist. 


'* Ontario .... 


320,839 


366,539 


417,749 


591,503 


106,680 


*Quebec . . . . 


1,170,718 


68,797 


50,797 


39,221 


8,853 


*Nova Scotia 


109,487 


60,255 


112,488 


50,811 


83,761 


*N". Brunswick. 


109,091 


46,768 


42,888 


34,514 


81 092 


"f Manitoba . 


14,652 


23,206 


28,406 


18,648 


3,296 


*Brit. Columbia 


10,045 


7,804 


4,095 


3,516 


434 


*Prince Ed. Is. 


49,115 


7,192 


33,835 


13,485 


6,236 


$The Territories 


9,301 


9,976 


7,712 


6,910 


778 



* Census of 1881. 



f Census of 1886. % Census of 1885. 



Canada is designated in Rome "the eldest son of 
the Church." In the province of Quebec the Roman 
Catholic church is established, and the Pope always 
addresses his communications to the " Ecclesiastical 
Province of Quebec." The Church of Rome has al- 
ways controlled the thoughts and actions of the French 
population under all governments, and ultramontanism 
would remain as a power superior to that of the 
United States. 

When Canada was confirmed to England by the 
Treaty of Paris in 1763, the Pope took care that the 
rights of the secular clergy should not suffer by the 
cession, and secured a clause in the treaty protecting 
the Church from Protestant England. 

" His Britannic Majesty on his side agrees to grant 
the liberty of the Roman Catholic Religion to the 
inhabitants of Canada. He will consequently give the 



RELIGION. 35 

most effectual orders, that his new Roman Catholic sub- 
jects may possess the worship of their religion, accord- 
ing to the rites of the Romish Church, so far as the 
laws of Great Britain permit." 

If the limitation in the last part of the article had 
been strictly enforced, the laws then in use in England 
would have been strong enough seriously to cripple 
the Roman Church in Canada, but the policy of the 
government was not to interfere with religion and the 
rights of the clergy, so long as there was no jurisdic- 
tion of the See of Rome or direct allegiance to the 
Pope. The guarantee meant, according to the Com- 
mission to General Murray and the ordinance passed 
in conformity therewith, that present laws and church 
tights should remain until a time to be fixed by the 
government. " The laws of a conquered country con- 
tinue until they are altered by the conqueror." 1 

King George III. directed Attorney General Thur- 
low and Solicitor General Wedderbourne to investi- 
gate " the defective form of government in the province 
and to prepare a plan of civil and criminal law for the 
said province, and to make their several reports there- 
on." 

The reports 8 they submitted to the King, fully state 
the religious condition of the colony and recommend a 
policy whereby "the inhabitants of Canada should be 
permitted freely to profess the worship of their relig- 
ion," and the clergy retained and protected in all those 
rights not inconsistent with the sovereignty of the 
King. From information concerning the Jesuits and 
their vast estates they gave their opinion that : 

" The exercise of any ecclesiastical jurisdiction under 
powers derived from the See of Rome, is not only con- 
trary to the positive laws of England but is contrary 
to the principles of government, for it is an invasion of 

1. Wheaton III., App. Sec. 4. 

2. Dated June 22, 1773 and Dec. 6, 1772. See -'Christie's History." 
Vol. 1, p. 27. 



36 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

the sovereignty of the King, whose supremacy must 
extend over all his dominions, nor can his Majesty by 
any act divest himself of it. 

" The establishment of the Jesuits and of the other 
religious orders, as corporations holding property and 
jurisdiction, is also repugnant to the political constitu- 
tion, which Canada must receive as part of the British 
dominions. 

" By the rule of their order the Jesuits are aliens in 
every government. Other monastic orders may be 
tolerated, because, though they are not useful subjects, 
still they are subjects, and make a part of the commu- 
nity ill employed. The Jesuits form no part of the 
community. They, according to their institution, neither 
allow allegiance nor obedience to the prince, but to a 
foreign power. They are not owners of their estates, 
but trustees for purposes dependent upon the pleasure 
of a foreigner, the general of their order. Three great 
Catholic states * have upon grounds of policy, expelled 
them. It would be singular if the first Protestant state 
in Europe should protect an establishment that ere 
now must have ceased in Canada, had the French 
government continued. 

" Uncertain of their tenure in Canada, the Jesuits 
have hitherto remained very quiet, but should the es- 
tablishment be tolerated there, they would soon take 
the ascendant of all the other priests ; the education 
of the Canadians would be entirely in their hands, and 
averse as they may be at present to France, it exceeds 
any measure of credulity to suppose that they would 
ever become truly and systematically friends to 
Britain. 

" It is therefore equally just and expedient in this 
instance to assert the sovereignty of the King, and to 
declare that the lands of the Jesuits are vested in his 
Majesty, allowing, at the same time, to the Jesuits now 

1. Viz., Portugal in 1759; Spain in 1764 ; and France in 1767. 



RELIGION. 37 

residing in Canada, liberal pensions out of the incomes 
of their estates." 

By the Quebec Act 1 in 1774, all those professing 
the belief of the Roman Catholic church were allowed 
the free exercise of their religion, and the clergy were 
maintained in all their rights, even those of levying 
tithes and holding large estates in mortmain. Thus 
this form of religion was established by law in Canada 
many years before toleration in England. The cause 
for this policy of England, unusually liberal for the 
time, was the fear that unless great concessions were 
made the Canadians would join the Americans in 
their struggle for independence. 

The Jesuits, since their foundation by Ignatius 
Loyola in 1534, had been bound by a peculiar allegi- 
ance to the Pope, and, as we have seen, acknowledged 
the superiority of no other earthly ruler. Their ex- 
istence could not be tolerated by the English King, 
and their estates were declared reverted to the crown. 
This act of George III. occurred at a time when there 
was much opposition to the order throughout the 
world, and Pope Clement XIV., in an effort to main- 
tain peace in the church, declared a bull, Dominus 
■ac Redemptor Noster, July 21st, 1773, suppressing the 
order in Canada and all Christian countries. 

The government dealt most liberally with them, and 
it was not until 180G, after the death of Father 
Casot, the last of their order, that it took possession of 
the estates. The property was sold, and, according to 
an act; of the legislature of Lower Canada passed in 
1832, the proceeds were applied to education only. 

Thus the legal successors to the estates were de- 
prived of all rights to, and the Roman Catholic bishop 
of all jurisdiction over them, through the action of 
their own Pontiff, as well as that of their King. The 
order was regarded as legally extinct in Canada, as 
well as in other parts of the world, and was so treated 

1. 14 Geo. III., c. 83? " 



38 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

by the Roman Catholic church, but when the bull of 
Pope Pius VII. Solicititudo Omnium Ecclesiarum, on 
August 7, 1814, restored the order, a controversy im- 
mediately arose on account of the efforts of the Jusuits 
to recover possession of the large amount of property 
which they had owned or adequate compensation for 
its loss. Since that time the claim of the Jesuits that 
their moral rights to the property were never extin- 
guished has resulted in many bills and petitions 
presented year after year to the Legislature of Quebec, 
asking compensation, and the strong influence of the 
Roman Catholic church has been used toward accomp- 
lishing this object. 

As Protestants increased in number, Episcopalian 
missionaries were sent out from England, but they did 
not meet with any adequate encouragement in Lower 
Canada. But in Upper Canada, where the Roman 
Catholic religion was not so powerful, the Church of 
England received in every township, appropriations of 
lands, called " Clergy Reserves." The Constitutional 
Act, 1791, Article 36, allowed the Protestant clergy 
one-seventh of all grants made to the Crown. Here 
we find an instance of the government lending all its 
patronage to one denomination, and there arose the 
same feeling of discontent which has so often arisen 
against similiar encouragement of the Roman Catholic 
church. Opposition to this method was made by other 
sects, especially the Church of Scotland, and arguments 
were produced to show that this liberal granting of 
lands was unfair to the settlers and a drawback to the 
country's prosperity. The lands set apart for the 
clergy in Upper Canada during the years from 1787 to 
1833 were given only to three denominations, in the 
following portions : Church of England, 22,345 acres ; 
Church of Scotland, 1,160 acres; and Church of 
Rome, 400 acres. 1 Similar to this method was that 
adopted by Governor Sincole to encourage immigration 

1 Seventh Grievance Committee's Report, p. 164. 



RELIGIOX. 39 N 

whereby large estates, sometimes comprising entire 
townships, were given to persons who never saw them, 
but derived great wealth from their increased valuation 
when population increased. 

The lands set apart in Lower Canada for the Eoman 
Catholic church were of enormous extent. In addition 
to those which were acquired by Laval there were 
valuable lands belonging to the Order of St. Sulpice. 
The entire commercial city of Montreal was held 
under a feudal tenure by the priests of St. Sulpice. 
The "Commissioners of Inquiry," appointed in 1836, 
reported that the island was 1 40,000 acres in area, and 
valued at £3,475,000. 3 The other seigneuries of St. 
Sulpice were also of great value. After the union of 
Upper and Lower Canada their property was valued 
at £520,000, the interest on which was £30,000, or 
more than seven times the amount received by the- 
Protestants in all Canada. The French- Canadian popu- 
lation, relying on the increased strength that they had 
obtained by the rebellion of 1838, procured the passage- 
of an ordinance granting that sum of money to the Ro- 
man Catholic church. 

The British population who had been loyal tc* 
England in the rebellion petitioned the Parliament 
not to allow the bill. Then the whole question again 
came up of the rights of ecclesiastical orders in a de- 
bate on the incorporation of the Seminary of St. Sul- 
pice. 

The Bishop of Exeter spoke against it with the 
usual "arguments, and showed that such an enormous 
sum could not be taken from the treasury of the pro- 
vince without doing great harm. The bill was lost. 
But by the Uuion Act the Crown surrendered all re- 
venues at its disposal to the provincial legislature. The 
right, therefore, to legislate on the Jesuit and other 
estates was based on this concession, and the Roman 
Catholic church worked diligently until, after the 

2. Hansard LVII, 198. 



40 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

introduction of the present government, they succeed- 
ed in accomplishing their long sought object. 

The Jesuit and other Roman Catholic institutions 
that had been endowed with seigneuries by the French 
King were branches of the greater seminaries at Paris, 
and intended as state institutions for the express pur- 
pose of converting the savages and subjects of New 
France. They held their property from the Crown of 
France, which had the right to revoke the grant when- 
ever it seemed desirable. Therefore, when England 
conquered Canada, she had transferred to her all the 
rights of disposal which France enjoyed, and could 
dispose of the funds from this land for the education 
of British subjects. 1 This was done at the Reforma- 
tion, when the funds for the support of the Roman 
'Catholic church were turned over to the Church of 
England. And under the treaty with Great Britain 
the United States, in regard to the State of Michigan, 
succeeded to all the rights that existed in the King of 
France prior to its conquest by the British, and among 
those rights that of dealing with the signorial estates 
of lands granted out as seigneuries by the French 
King, after a forfeiture had occurred for non-fulfill- 
ment of the condition of the fief. 2 Therefore, for these 
reasons, which we have but briefly investigated, the 
Jesuits had forfeited all rights to their estates. 

In 1887 the Society of Jesus was incorporated by 
the Quebec Legislature, and when Premier Honore 
Mercier, an ardent Catholic, became the leader one 
year later, he succeeded in passing an act through the 
Provincial Legislature granting to the order $400,000 
in full settlement of their claims, at the same time 
giving the Protestant educational fund the sum of 
$60,000 as a sop to quiet opposition. The fact that 
the province is distinctly Roman Catholic was indi- 

1. Grotius in "De Jure Belli et Pads," c. 8, states the principle that the 
new sovereign succeeds fully to the rights of the conquered sovereign. 

2. Wheaton, 280. 



RELIGION. 41 

cated by an accompanying stipulation, which, it is safe 
to say, would not be allowed by any legislature in this 
Union, since it provides "that any agreement made 
between the government of the province and the 
Society of Jesus will be binding only in so far as it 
shall be ratified by the Pope and the Legislature of 
the province," and that " the amount of compensation 
shall remain in the possession of the government of 
the province as a special deposit, until the Pope has 
ratifiedthe said settlement and made known his wishes 
respecting the distribution of such money in the 
country." 

He decided that only $100,000 should be given di- 
rectly to the Jesuits and the remaining $300,000 should 
be distributed among the ecclesiastical institutions. 

On November 6th, 1889, the provincial government 
paid over that amount to Father Turgeon who repre- 
sented the Jesuit order. 

Thus the public money was taken from the treasury 
and the pockets of poor taxed and tithe-burdened 
people further to enrich a wealthy church. The 
Jesuit Estates Act seems to be beyond the jurisdic- 
tion of the Provincial Legislature and opposed to the 
civil rights of the Protestants. 

Protestantism throughout the Dominion is alarmed 
at the surprising aggression of the Roman Church, and 
through synods, unions and conferences has loudly 
proclaimed against the act as "an unconstitutional 
and dangerous recognition of the authority of the 
Pope, and invasion of the supremacy of the Queen. 
Its unconstitutionality is based upon the grounds that 
the British North America Act gives the Province 
of Quebec no such power of legislation, and that the 
supremacy of the Pope is recognized in the Act. 

The latter is undoubtedly true, since the Quebec Act 
of 1774 and that of 31 George III., c. 31, declare 
that the supremacy of the Crown shall be maintained 
as established by Queen Elizabeth. 



42 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The friends of religious equality looked with hope 
to the \eto of the Act by the Dominion Govern- 
ment, but their petitions availed nothing against a fac- 
tion which dared not incur the enmity of the subjects 
of Rome. 

Democracy is the majority and the majority is 
sovereign, and government is according to the voice 
of the people. Since the people of the Province of 
Quebec can legislate on their own affairs, and want 
religious teaching by the government, they will have 
it, for the Roman Catholics are in the majority. 

The control of elections by the clergy has been 
open in all matters involving religious matters, al- 
though in secular matters they pretend to be neutral. 
The several writers who have watched the Ultramon- 
tane movement in Canada seem to agree that the in- 
fluence of the bishops and priests over their parishes 
has created a strong Papal power in the Legislature 
of the Province of Quebec and the Dominion House 
of Commons. Mr. Charles Lindsey in an article in the 
"North American Review " of November 1877, states 
that the policy of the Catholic Church has been de- 
clared in a Programme Catholique, to which canidates 
were required to subscribe before they could secure 
any chance of election. He says : 

" The necessity of all who were in a position to 
exercise legislative power being in perfect accord with 
the Church, was insisted on. No one regarding whom 
there was any doubt in this respect could be elected. 

The full and complete adhesion to Roman Catholic 
doctrines, in religion, politics, and social economy, 
was the first and principal qualification to be required 
in a candidate by Catholic electors. The laws relating 
to marriage, education, and the erection of parishes, 
were described as being in conflict with the claims 
•of the Church ; and it was the duty of Catholic legis- 
lators to amend them in accordance with the demands 
of the bishops, with a view of placing them in har- 



RELIGION. 43 

mony with the doctrines of the Roman Catholic 
church. 

Bishop Bourget has been instrumental in bringing 
about the present situation of the Church in Quebec 
toward the government, and has always maintained 
the rights of the priests to interfere in elections, and 
declared that no candidate should be elected "who 
desires the separation of Church and State ; who 
sustains propositions condemned by the Syllabus, who 
rejects the intervention of the Pope, the bishops and 
the priests, in the affairs of government." 1 

In these questions of religion in politics there has 
been very little free discussion or opposition by the 
people through the press. The papers throughout 
the province are boycotted and compelled to stop pub- 
lication, if they continue to print sentiments contrary 
to the wishes of the Holy See. The editors are gen- 
erally Catholics and some papers are edited with the 
avowed intention of aiding the clergy in political 
matters. The control of the Church is very apparent 
in the articles published in the " Courrier du Canada," 
which has received the Papal benediction ; " Journal 
de Quebec," " Courrier de St. Hyacinthe," " Bulletin 
Mensuel," " L' Evenement " and " La Verite." 

Political proscription on account of religion cannot 
be tolerated in the United States, where the interference 
of the clergy in political matters is regarded even by 
Catholics as opposed to freedom of the ballot and a 
means of corruption. The Pope's temporal power in 
America exists only in theory. He is regarded by 
educated Catholics merely as the head of their religious 
organization. Under the influence of our government 
Roman Catholics are beginning to appreciate the fact, 
that the people are sovereign and subject to no 
superior authority or foreign potentate. Ultramon- 
tanism may exist among a people, ignorant, bigoted 

1. Lettre Pastorale desEvSques de La Province Eccl6siastique de Quebec, 
Septembre 22, 1875. 



44 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

and controlled by priests, but not among a people 
thoroughly imbued with the spirit; of independence. 

There can be no union of the Province of Quebec 
with the United States as long as its entire political 
system is subject to the cunning of Jesuitism, and the 
insidious policy of foreign despotism. If it were 
represented as a State in Congress, can there be any 
doubt but that its peculiar foreign sentiments would 
be a source of contentions and fractional projects. Its 
institutions as we have seen, are opposed to our govern- 
ment and can never in their present shape be blended 
with republicanism. Yet, annexation would tend to 
weaken the power of Jesuitism and its control over 
government. Is it not more likely, then, that the Koman 
Catholic church would encourage the Province of 
Quebec to remain in its present dependency, or hold 
out against annexation in favor of an independent 
Catholic Nationality ? 

» 

EDUCATION. 

There was under the old regime no general system 
of education by means of local rates and taxes for the 
support of parochial schools. The Church, therefore, 
exercised exclusive control over educational matters, 
and its pious exertions were directed rather to prepare 
young men for the priesthood, than to train the 
children of the colonists to enlightened ideas and the 
higher callings in secular life. 

The children of the habitans grew up in complete 
ignorance of those matters so essential to the growth 
of a new country, and naturally the second and third 
generations could not receive proper parental help in 
elementary studies. The Jesuits taught the catechism 
and sometimes reading and writing. The wealthy 
seigneurs sent their sons to the few ecclesiastical semin- 
aries. That founded in 1663 by Laval at Quebec was 
a favorite, and was increased by the formation of the 



EDUCATION. 45 

smaller seminary five years later. A school for boys 
was established in 1740 at Montreal, by priests of St. 
Sulpice, which led to the foundation of a college in 
1773. 

In a work entitled "Preces historique et statistique 
sur l'instruction publique an Canada," Mr. Chauveau 
says that the Recollects made some attempt to instruct 
the poorer population, but their efforts seem to have 
been directed toward the elementary education of the 
young savages about Three Rivers. He says that 
in 1632 Lejune and Lallemant, two Jesuit fathers, 
founded a school for Indians as well as one for the 
children of the colonists. There was a " farm school " 
in the parish of St. Joachim, below Quebec 1 Girls 
were educated in the convents, the first one of which 
was that of the Ursuline nuns. In 1747 there 
were houses of this kind in the principal parishes, and 
at least twelve in the province of Quebec. 

The American colonies, on the other hand, had ad- 
vanced theories of legislation and the duties of society 
toward their members. The law made provision for a 
number of social wants which were very inadequately 
felt in Canada. The character of American civiliza- 
tion and progress received its birth in New England^ 
through a system of public education. The code of 
1650 2 provided for established schools in every town- 
ship, since it is " one chief object of Satan to keep men 
from the knowledge of the Scriptures, by persuading 
from the use of tongues, to the end that learning may 
not be buried in the graves of our forefathers, in 
church and commonwealth, the Lord assisting our en- 
deavours." The law compelled the inhabitants to sup- 
port the schools under heavy penalties, and enforced 
the sending of children to school by parents. Those 
who refused to send their children were heavily fined, 
and if they continued in resistance, the parent was de- 

1. Francis Parkham, " The Old Regime in Canada," p. 163. 
!$. See also "De Tocqueville's Democracy in America." 



46 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

prived of his child in order that it might be educated. 
The father was deprived of his natural lights for the 
benefit of society or the common well being. 

When the English assumed control, the progress of 
education in Canada was greatly advanced. In 1787, 
a Committee of the Executive Council, instructed by 
Lord Dorchester to make a report and suggest a rem- 
edy for the lack of instruction in the country, reported 
that in many of the smaller villages only from twenty- 
five to thirty people knew how to read and write. 

In 1801 Lower Canada received its first College, by 
the authority of the government, under the name of 
Institution Royale, by an " Acte pour etablir les 
ecoles gratuites et pour le progres de l'Instruction." 

The first legislative enactment in Upper Canada pro- 
viding for schools was that of 1807, providing for a 
classical and mathematical school in each of the eight 
districts into which the province was then divided, 
and a grant of £80 a year for the support of each. In 
1816 a law was passed appropriating $24,000 a year, 
for the support of common or elementary schools. 
Four years after, in 1820, settlers in the Earl of Sel- 
kirk's colony, now Manitoba, had founded both 
Roman Catholic as well as Protestant schools. 

It has been generally noticeable throughout Canada 
that Catholic parents do not wish to send their child- 
ren to schools conducted by Protestants, and the 
Catholic clergy have never permitted them to do so. 
It has been found necessary in some provinces to main- 
tain separate schools for both sects. 

The first organization of a regular school system in 
Quebec was the result of a law passed by the legisla- 
ture in 1829 entitled, "Acte pour l'encouragement de 
l'education elementaire." Since that time the growth 
has been steady, and schools have increased rapidly. 
According to the statistics of Mr. Paul de Cases, 1 of 
the Bureau of Education of Quebec, the number of 

1. " L'Instruction Publique dans La Province de Quebec." 



EDUCATION. 47 

primary schools in 1836 was 1321, with about 30,000 
scholars; in 1847 the number was 1613, with 63,281 
-scholars ; and in 1854 the number of schools had in- 
creased to 2,795, and of the scholars to 119,737. 

When the provinces of Upper Canada (Ontario) 
and Lower Canada (Quebec) were united in 1841, a 
law was passed establishing a common school system 
in which there should be " Roman Catholic separate 
schools " in Upper Canada. Thus there was a separate 
system of schools for Protestants and Catholics. 

In the British North America Act of 1867, section 93, 
it was provided that each province may make laws in 
relation to education on condition that : 

" Nothing in any such law shall prejudicially effect 
-any Right or Privilege with respect to Denominational 
Schools which any class of persons have by Law in 
the Province at the Union." In the school acts, there- 
fore, in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Manitoba, 
and the Northwest Territories, equal provision is made 
for Protestant and Catholic schools, in an endeavor to 
maintain perfect harmony between the English and 
French populations. 

Taking general notice of education in the Dominion 
we may divide it into three classes: 1. Common or 
Elementary. 2. Secondary. 3. Higher and Univer- 
sity. 

The elementary schools are distinguished as Public 
-and Separate. Those in the provinces less influenced 
by the French, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince 
Edward Island, are non-sectarian, but it is demanded 
thair they be Christian and not atheistic. In British 
Columbia "the highest morality is to be inculcated, 
but no religious creed or dogma taught." 

In the provinces where separate schools are main- 
tained, it is provided that Roman Catholic tax- 
payers can elect to support them and be exempted 
ironi paying the public school rates. These Catholic 
schools are conducted on an independent basis, but sub- 



48 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

ject to the conditions of the general regulations of th& 
Educational department in each province. 

Although the systems of education are similar in 
the various provinces, they differ in application- 
Quebec is divided into scholastic municipalities, under 
the control of five public school commissioners. Where 
there are separate schools they are under the super- 
vision of three syndics and receive aid from the 
government in proportion to the number of children. 
that they instruct. General education throughout the 
province is under the control of a Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, assisted by a council of thirty-five,, 
which is divided into committees acting separately. 
The Catholic committee has 20 members, and the 
Protestant 15. 

The Protestant schools are similar to our own, and 
the reading of the Bible is the only religious instruc- 
tion ; but in the Catholic schools the catechism i& 
taught, and the young children are early trained to be 
faithful members of the church under the guidance of 
nuns and cures. 

The number of pupils in the elementary schools 
in 1889 was: Koman Catholics, 154,429 ; Protestants r 
27,97s. 1 

The province of Ontario has an educational system 
based on municipal organization, and managed by- 
trustees elected by the rate payers. There is also a 
separate corporation of trustees for separate schools 
elected by Catholic supporters. These schools are- 
provided for in proportion to their attendance. The 
general control of education is vested in the Minister of 
Education. The schools in this province in 1886 were 
as follows ; public schools, 5,437, with 487,496 pupils ; 
separate schools, 224, with 29,199 pupils. 

In the province of Manitoba the Board of Education 
is divided into two sections. The first section is com- 
posed of twelve members, presided over by an officer 

1. Annual Report on Education in Quebec, 1889. 



EDUCATION. 49 

called " Superintendent of the Protestant Schools," and 
-appointed by the Governor in Council. The second sec- 
tion is composed of eight members and a superintend- 
ent, who manage the separate schools. Each section 
-acts independently, and receives money from the 
government " according to the relative proportion of 
Protestant and Catholic children of school age in the 
province, as obtained by the school census taken annu- 
ally." The province is mapped out into " school dis- 
tricts," and the mode of supporting education is decided 
by each district. 

There were in 1886, 496 schools or districts con- 
nected with the Protestant section, with 15,926 pupils. 
The statistics of Catholic schools are uncertain, but 
they maybe estimated at about 55, with an attendance 
of 2100. 

The Northwest Territories have an educational sys- 
tem under the control of a Board of Education, com- 
posed of five members, two Catholics, two Protestants, 
-and a chairman in the person of the Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor. 

The statistics for 1888, show: Protestant schools, 
90; pupils^ 2425. Catholic schools, 21 ; pupils, 719. 

The provinces do not issue their reports at the same 
date, but from statistics available, the attendance in 
the schools in those provinces having a single common 
school system, is as follows :* 

Nova Scotia, 1888; schools, 2166 in summer; 2045 
in winter. Pupils, 105,231. 

New Brunswick, 1888 ; schools, 1542. Pupils, 69,- 
063. r 

British Columbia, 1887 ; schools, 87. Pupils, 5179. 

Prince Edward Island, 1887; schools, 437. Pupils, 
22,460. r 

Secondary education is obtained in high schools 
or collegiate institutes and is intended to prepare 
students for professional pursuits or the universities. 

1. Compiled from Annual Reports on Education. 



50 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The studies are on a higher grade than those of the 
elementary schools, and include modern languages, 
the classics, higher mathematics and the various 
studies preparatory to higher education. In addition 
to legislative and municipal grants these schools are 
for the most part supported by fees from the pupils. 

The number of high schools in Ontario in 1886 
was 109, with 15,344 pupils. In addition to these are : 
model, art, normal and mechanics' institutes. Quebec 
had in 1888, 55 Protestant secondary schools with 
6,652 pupils, and 486 Catholic, with 67,579 pupils. 
The normal schools are : Laval at Quebec ; Jacques 
Cartier and McGill at Montreal. The first two are 
strictly French and Catholic, and have about 184 
pupils ; the last is English and Protestant. 

Manitoba has a normal school for the training of 
teachers and a collegiate school at Winnipeg, which had 
in 1886 an attendance of 114 pupils. The students 
generally enter Manitoba University, but a few go to 
colleges in the East. 

The higher educational institutions bear comparison 
with those in the United States, and there is a certain 
bond of friendship between them. Professors in 
American colleges accept positions in Canadian uni- 
versities, and there is a constant passing back and 
forth of students, many Canadians preferring Ameri- 
can colleges. 

The colleges and universities of Canada like those of 
this country are generally under denominational con- 
trol, but free from sectarian tests. Instruction is given 
to 5,000 students in colleges situated in the Maritime 
Provinces. The Province of Ontario stands first in the 
number of high educational Institutions. 

The principal seats of learning in the Dominion are : 
The University of Queen's College, at Kingston; 
University of Trinity College, and the Toronto 
University at Toronto ; the Western University, 
Albert University, Ottawa College, and the University 



EDUCATION. 51 

of Victoria College at Cobourg. The last is affiliated 
with Victoria University at Montreal. The Province 
of Quebec has also the great Laval University at 
Quebec ; McGill University at Montreal ; and Bishop's 
College at Lennoxville. Nova Scotia has King's 
College at Windsor ; University of Acadia College at 
Wolf ville ; and Dalhousie and the Presbyterian College 
at Halifax. Besides these there are many smaller 
affiliated colleges, several of them being for the 
education of women. 

Maintoba has a University and affiliated colleges. 

The Dominion government has bound itself by 
treaty to maintain schools among the Indian and half- 
breed population of the Northwest. Many of these 
schools are missionary and yet under the control of a 
church. 

The English speaking half-breeds are educated in 
Episcopal and Presbyterian schools. The French half- 
breeds are Catholic and under the control of Jesuit 
teachers. The Canadian government, pursuing its usual 
liberal policy, encourages and aids Catholic Indian 
schools as well as those of other denominations. By 
annexation of the northwest we should have the old 
difficulty of administering Indian affairs, and have to 
encounter strong opposition from religious denomina- 
tions before we could form a uniform non-sectarian 
system. The Indian school system of this country 
does not differ in some respects from that of Canada. 
In addition to the regular governmental schools, we 
have " contract schools," which are supported by the 
religious bodies of the country and receive aid from 
the government. These schools educate the children 
at a cheaper rate than in the government schools, and 
have proved very beneficial auxiliaries. The Koman 
Catholic schools have been doing good work among 
the Indians, and their interest has been shown by the 
fact that, during the year 1888, they were awarded 
$347,672, out of an appropriation of $476,190, foi 



52 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

maintaining government pupils ; while during the 
year 1889, they received $354,491, out of a total of 
$506,994. 

The recent opposition to General T. J. Morgan, Com- 
missioner of Indian Affairs, and Dr. Dorchester, Super- 
intendent of Indian Schools, was led by Archbishop 
Ireland and Bishop Riordan, who assert that they 
discriminated against Roman Catholics by removing 
teachers because of their religious belief, and that 
they desire to abolish the " contract school system.'" 

The policy of allowing the Indian schools to become 
denominational, has already caused general dissatisfac- 
tion. It is evident that the system, in order to meet 
with popular favor, must be non-sectarian. 

The difference between the public school systems of 
the two countries affords a subject of interesting dis- 
cussion. The provinces, which have the double system, 
contain nearly all the French Catholics of the Domin- 
ion, while the provinces having the single system are 
-composed of elements more similar to our own popula- 
tion. The systems in the Dominion are admirable, but 
the maintenance of the sectarian schools for Roman 
Catholics must be a cause of future dispute and a 
barrier against the amalgamation of the French race 
with the American. 

The great body of the American people will never 
permit any part of their free and common school sys- 
tem to be under the control of the Roman Catholic 
church. "Free church, free school," is their cry, 
since an established religion and sectarian schools 
obstruct nationality and make the people narrow- 
minded. It is the chief corner-stone of our political 
institutions, and from the first establishment of the 
States, education has been a matter in which every 
man was bound to contribute. 

The theory is a sound one, that the State being the 
embodiment of the concentrated wisdom of the people, 
can best be left to determine the best lines of secular 



EDUCATION. 53 

education. When the State permits religious teaching 
in free schools, it interferes with the rights of Hebrew 
and other denominations, and has no right to tax other 
denominations for these schools. 

For the purpose of preventing the appropriation of 
public money to sectarian or religious purposes, a 
recently formed organization, "The National League 
for the Protection of American Institutions," has pro- 
posed the following amendment to the Federal Consti- 
tution, which may soon be presented to Congress : 

" No State shall pass any law respecting an estab- 
lishment of riligion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
thereof, or use its property, money, or credit, or any 
power of taxation, or authorize either to be used, for 
the purpose of founding, maintaining or aiding any 
church, religious denomination or religious society or 
any institution or undertaking under sectarian or ec- 
clesiastical control." 

The condition of schools under Catholic control in 
Canada is not such as to indicate any improvement 
upon our system. "We do not propose to allow the 
religious difficulty to arise in schools which are in- 
tended to make good American citizens, and not sub- 
jects of Eome. Eeligion is a subject properly left to 
the parent, who has a right to determine what creed 
the child should embrace. 

The habits of truth and moral living are taught in 
our schools, and not the doctrine of any one religion. 



CHAPTER III.— GEOGRAPHICAL. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The continent of North America is simple in its 
structure. The mountain chains extend in one direction 
and are nearly parallel with the coasts. Those in the 
East taking a southwestern, and those in the West, a 
southeastern direction. The Eastern range or system 
of mountains, called the Alleghanies or Alantic High- 
lands, extend from the northern coast of Labrador, 
where the mountains are somewhat isolated, to the 
hills of Georgia near the Gulf of Mexico. The whole 
of this range, except the mountains in the provinces of 
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, is in the United 
States. The Western range, called the Rocky Moun- 
tains, or Pacific Highlands, is the longest in the world, 
and extends from the northern shore of Alaska by the 
Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama, and from a 
geographical point of view is continued in the South 
American Andes. 

These two ranges of mountains divide the continent 
into three great geographical unities. The first 
includes that long and comparatively narrow strip of 
country between the Alleghany range and the Alantic 
Ocean. The second unity embraces that wider strip 
of land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific 
Ocean. The third unity comprises all the central 
plane between the two mountain systems, and in its 
vast expanse extends from the cold regions of the 
Arctic Ocean to the warm country by the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

The geographical unities on this continent do not 
seem to have had the same effect as in Europe of 



TOPOGRAPHY. 55 

marking the boundaries of nations. History has shown 
many cases, like that of the Pyrenees between France 
•and Spain, where 

" Mountains interposed 
Make enemies of nations, who had else, 
Like kindred drops, been mingled into one." 

Although the first colonies confined themselves for 
the most part to the territory in the first unity, the 
nation which they established has found little 
■difficulty, through modern facilities of communication, 
in extending its government across these natural 
barriers, to the Pacific Ocean. The United States has 
had a peculiar growth in an era of invention, and rail- 
roads and scientifically constructed bridges make easy 
intercourse among towns and counties, even in the 
newest regions. Its area is estimated at 3,556,500 
•square miles, 1 and is bounded on the east by part of 
the Dominion of Canada and the Atlantic Ocean ; on 
the south, by the Gulf of Mexico and the Eepublic of 
Mexico ; on the west, by the Pacific Ocean ; and on 
the north, by the Dominion of Canada. 

The Dominion of Canada comprises all of British 
North America with the exception of Newfoundland, 
and is according to the census measurements 3,470,257 
•square miles in area. 

When we examine the boundary line which separates 
the two countries, we find that it is partly artificial 
and partly natural. The natural boundary line is that 
formed by the chain of great lakes, in connection with 
the St. Lawrence river, and the continuation of the 
Alleghany range in the water sheds of the Maine 
boundary. The artificial line is that agreed upon after 
four treaties with Great Britain, and extends for the 
most part along the 49th parallel of north latitude 
eastward to the Lake of the Woods, after which 

1. This includes the area of Alaska (estimated at 530,000 square miles), 
which lies north-west of the British possessions, and is separated from" 
them by a boundary line for the most part artificial. 



56 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

it pursues a south-east direction through a succession 
of small lakes to Lake Superior. But there is a slight 
ridge or table land extending along this artificial 
boundary, and its presence is noticed by the fact that 
the rivers south of it flow towards the Mississippi, 
while those north of it descend into Hudson's Bay, 
the Mackenzie river and the Arctic Ocean. 

There is, therefore, a great natural barrier dividing 
the United States from that portion of the Dominion 
which is more thickly populated and differs in 
ethnical character. On the other hand the part of the 
Dominion lying on the more artificial boundary is yet 
in its infancy, and nearly the same in ethnical 
character. 

CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 

Taking into consideration the climate of North 
America, it may be noticed that it does not have as 
much influence on the people, and manner and means 
of living, in the two countries as one would suppose, 
owing to the continent's prolongation southward and 
its backbone of mountains. Although the average 
heat and cold in the two countries may not be without 
its influence upon the food and clothing of the 
inhabitants, and tends to create different wants and 
pursuits, yet the difference in climate is too small 
generally to cause any striking diversity in character. 

For the purpose of comparison of temperatures and 
agricultural resources, scientists have divided the 
continent into six territorial unities : 

1. That comprising the countries of Mexico and 
Central America extending to the 30th parallel of 
north latitude. 

2. That between the Atlantic Ocean and the 
Alleghany Mountains from latitude 25° to 50° north, 
and from longitude 60° to 90° west. 

3. That between the Eocky Mountains and the 
Pacific Ocean from latitude 30° to 50° north. 



CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 57 

4. That formed by a continuation of the third ter- 
ritorial unity toward the north, from latitude 50° to 
70° north, and from longitude 115° to 165° west. 

5. The basins of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers 
from latitude 29° to 48° north, and from longitude 75° 
to 11 5° west. 

6. All north of the fifth unity from latitude 49° to 
80° north, and from longitude 60° to 140° west. 

Therefore, the provinces of Ontario, with the excep- 
tion of its western extention, New Brunswick, Nova 
Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Quebec, with the 
exception of its northern part, lie in the same territoral 
unity with that group of our states extending south 
to the Gulf of Mexico, along the Atlantic seaboard. 
The climate of this territorial unity is influenced by 
the Gulf Stream, which 'passes along the Atlantic coast, 
taking a northerly direction across the Atlantic Ocean 
by Iceland toward the British Isles and the northwest 
of Europe generally. 

The climate of the maritime provinces of Canada 
resembles that of the British Isles. The proximity 
of the sea tends to raise the temperature of the air and 
make it uniform, but farther inland the differences 
between the temperatures in summer and winter 
become greater. Therefore, in the provinces of 
Quebec and Ontaria the summers are hot and short, 
and the winters very long and severe, but owing to 
the dryness of the atmosphere, the cold and heat are 
not so perceptible as one would expect. Of the east- 
ern provinces Quebec is the coldest, and has the 
greatest extremes in temperature. During the season 
from the early part of December until March when the 
ground is covered with snow, many of the inhabitants 
remain in the vicinity of their homes, on account of 
the danger and inconvenience of travel. When the 
thermometer runs as low as 26° F. the St. Lawrence river 
is frozen over and the inhabitants on both sides the 
river celebrate the event, and establish direct com- 
munication over the icy plain. 



58 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. . 

Taking brief notice of agriculture and the natural 
resources of these provinces, we find that the soil of 
Ontario is very fertile, that of Quebec is of average 
fertility, and as we approach the ocean the country be- 
comes barren. 

Ontario is the most southern of the provinces, and 
its carefully prepared statistics show that its advan- 
tageous situation near the Great Lakes makes the crops 
heavy and of good quality. It is the great grain-grow- 
ing province of the Dominion, the crops in 1888 yield- 
ing 20,284,346 bushels of wheat. This is a more favor- 
able return, in proportion to the number of inhabitants 
and average yield per acre, than that of either of the 
adjacent states, Minnesota, Michigan and New York. 
The same richness in agricultural resources is shown 
in the production of other crops. The average yield 
of bushels per acre from 1882 to 1888 has been as- 
follows ; fall wheat, 19.S ; spring wheat, 15.7 ; bar- 
ley, 26.1; oats, 35.7; peas, 20.7; beans, 21.1; rye, 
16.4; corn, 67.5. The fruit crops have become cele- 
brated, and apples and grapes are sent to the markets, 
of American cities in large quantities. 

Ontario is 181,800 square miles in area, and there 
are, according to the last census, 304,630 persons en 
gaged in agriculture. The province is well adapted 
to the raising of cattle and sheep because of the invig- 
orating character of the winters and plentiful supply 
of feed, but less attention is paid to pasture land than 
to grain production. 

There is still a great portion of the country covered 
by forests, which contain a greater variety of trees than 
any of the other provinces. In the districts, near 
Lake Erie especially, there may be found black walnut, 
sassafras, chestnut, dogwood, locust and other trees in- 
digenous to our western states. 

Among the mineral wealth of Ontario can be found 
nearly all the metals predominating in the useful arts, 
but only small quantities have yet been yielded, with 



CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 59 

the exception of salt in the Lake Huron districts and 
iron in the vicinity of Kingston. Productive wells of 
petroleum are being worked with greater success each 
year, especially in the neighbourhood of Bothwell and 
Petrolia. Of the 20,804,384 gallons of crude petro- 
leum produced in Canada in 1887, about 15,000,000 
gallons were from the wells of Ontario. 1 

Passing now toward the east, we find that agricul- 
ture in Quebec is most productive in that hilly country 
extending from the Alleghany range to the St. Law- 
rence river, and along the latter's northern bank. 
This province is the great market garden of Canada, 
since the French inhabitants do not undertake farming 
on a large scale, but produce a great variety of grain 
and fruit. 

The province is developing into a stock-raising and 
dairying country. The exports of butter and cheese 
are largely on the increase. The maple trees afford 
an abundance of syrup and sugar, and in the more 
northern districts the beech, white pine and elm are 
found. 

The principal minerals of Quebec are phosphates, 
silver, iron, gold, asbestos and copper. About ninety- 
six per cent, of the phosphate exported from Canada, 
is produced in Quebec. In 1889 the output of asbes- 
tos amounted to nearly 5000 tons. It is found in the 
Laurentian geographical formation extending from 
Labrador westward beyond the Great Lakes, and in 
the region between the St. Lawrence river and our 
national boundary. Prof. J. T. Donald informs us of 
this asbestos product in the " Popular Science Month- 
ly," of February, 1890, and says: "Although good 
workings occur elsewhere, the great majority of the 
mines are along the line of the Quebec Central Rail- 
way, which runs from the City of Quebec to Sher- 
brooke, the capitol of the so-called Eastern Townships 
of Canada, and cluster around two points a short dis- 

1. Statistical Abstract and Record, Canada. Ottawa, 1889. 



60 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

tance apart and about midway between the two cities." 
He states that the United Asbestos Company, Limited, 
of London, England, that controlled the Italian mines, 
has turned its attention to the Canadian field and is 
operating on a large scale. 

As we approach the seaboard we notice that as the 
agricultural possibilities decrease, other natural pro- 
ductions become more prominent. Thus in those pro- 
vinces on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, agriculture does 
not receive as much attention as lumbering, mining and 
fishing. 

The southern coasts are rocky and not available for 
the production of crops, but farther inland the lands 
once covered by forests are capable of cultivation suf- 
ficient to supply the wants of the inhabitants of these 
provinces. The most fertile lands are those formed by 
shutting out the sea from the flat lands by dykes. This 
is frequently done on the Bay of Fundy. From this 
region are exported to the United States considerable 
quantities of apples and potatoes. 

These provinces are included in the great pine belt 
passing over the country between Newfoundland and 
the Lake of the Woods, and extending north from the 
Great Lakes to Hudson's Bay. The principal trees are 
the white and red pine, and the timber exported from 
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia has proved a source 
of great wealth. 

Nova Scotia contains important coal deposits, the 
production in 1887 being 1,871,338 tons, or over one- 
half of the entire production of Canada for that year. 
The principal mines are in Cape Breton, an island of 
good soil and excellent grazing lands, with numerous 
Itarbors, and prosperous in fisheries and ship-building. 
Its advantageous situation near the great fishing banks, 
make it of vast importance as a coaling station. Syd- 
ney harbor is the principal coal field. The others ex- 
tend across the northern part of the province, and are 



FISHERIES. 61 

worked in the Pictou and Cumberland districts. 1 These 
•carboniferous fields run under the sea and Prince Ed- 
ward Island to Newfoundland. 

The fisheries of this region are of such surpass- 
ing importance that it is said that without them 
England never could have attained her naval supre- 
macy. For every seaport town, every little village 
on the coast has become a nursery of seamen. It is, 
therefore, more likely that the English government 
will endeavor to retain this " arm of strength," so 
essential to her honor, independence and security. 
Talleyrand wisely observed to Bonaparte, that he 
could only distress England by ruining her colonies. 
And it is evident that English statesmen watch care- 
fully the temper of Canada in all political movements. 
They are always anxious for speedy and amicable 
settlements of fishery disputes with the United States 
since the subject of annexation invariably follows that 
of the fisheries if the colonists are not content with 
their settlement. If they cannot obtain from England 
sufficient protection against the encroachments of 
American crafts they talk of throwing off that alle- 
giance for which the mother country makes no return. 
The fishery question is again a subject of international 
-consideration, since the best fishing grounds are those 
off the coasts of these provinces especially near the fish- 
ing banks. " Western Bank " is off the Nova Scotia 
coast. The " Great Bank," off the southern coast of 
Newfoundland, is one of the most remarkable forma- 
tions 'of nature. In length it is about six hundred 
miles, in breadth about two hundred. It is supposed 
to have been originally an island and that it has been 
formed by accumulations of sand carried along by the 
<xulf Stream and arrested by the currents of the north. 

These ice currents bring with them a vast collection 
of minute organisms, which form the food of the 

1. "The Distinctive Features of the Various Nova Scotia Coal Fields " — 
Edwin Gilpin, Jr., A.M., Inspector of Mines, Nova Scotia. 



62 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

myriads of fish that annually frequent these waters. 
This is the solution of the swarming of cod, herring,, 
caplin and other useful fish off the shoals, and the- 
consequent desire of Americans to fish in this neigh- 
borhood causes the conflict with Canadian fishermen, 
since, with few exceptions, in Nova Scotia and New 
Brunswick, they do not employ the scientific methods 
of the New Englanders. 

About one half of the total yield of the fisheries in 
the Dominion has been obtained by the enterprising 
fishermen of Nova Scotia. The values of the fisheries 
in Canada by provinces, in 1888, were : Nova Scotia, 
$7,817,032; New Brunswick, $2,941,863; Quebec,. 
$1,860,012; Prince Edward Island, $876,862; Ontario, 
$1,839,869. On the Pacific coast the fisheries of British 
Columbia were valued at $1,902,195. Manitoba and the 
Northwest Territories derived from their inland waters- 
$180,677. From the earliest times succeeding the 
Revolution, the rights of American and Canadian fish- 
ermen have been a subject of controversy and treaty 
arrangement. Probably the most liberal and satisfac- 
tory was the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, which, since 
it was one step toward commercial union, deserves 
special attention. Great Britain in addition to the 
privilege of taking fish on certain coasts mentioned in 
the Convention of 1818, gave the inhabitants of the- 
United States the liberty " to take fish of every kind, 
except shell-fish, on the coasts, shores and bays of 
Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward 
Island, and the adjacent islands, without being res- 
tricted to any distance from the shore, with permission 
to land on the shores of those colonies and the islands 
thereof, and upon Magdalen Island for the purpose of 
drying their nets and curing fish." On the other hand 
British fishermen were allowed "to take fish of every- 
kind, except shell-fish, on the Eastern sea coasts and 
shores of the United States north of the thirty sixth 
parallel of latitude and on the shores of the several 



FISHERIES. 63 

islands without being limited to any distance from the 
shore," with the same privileges of drying and curing 
on the shores as were extended to American fishermen. 
The St. Lawrence river and Canadian canals used as 
communications between the Great Lakes and the 
Atlantic, were opened to the navigation of Americans, 
while Lake Michigan was opened in like manner to 
British subjects — a right, however, being reserved of 
suspending the operation of these concessions upon 
due notice given. Canadian fish and fish oil were im- 
ported into the United States] free of duty, and there 
was free tiade in many articles of exchange between 
the two countries. 

This system of free trade increased the markets of 
the United States and opened its ports to the export 
trade of British North America. But the Canadians 
seemed to think that they were granting too great 
concessions to the United States, and the United States 
at the same time concluded that the fisheries were not 
as advantageous as protection. The treaty, therefore, 
came to- an end in 1866. Then the old troubles and 
questions arose, and Canada saw how greatly her com- 
merce and prosperity depended upon the United 
States. Canadian fishermen joined the fleets of New 
England, so as to enter their catch in American mar- 
kets free of duty. The English government desired a 
speedy adjustment of the fishery question, and there 
followed a treaty which gave the same provisions as 
the previous one, except that they might be terminated 
by either government upon two years notice after ten 
years. Fish products were admitted into each country 
respectively, free of duty. The navigation of the St. 
Lawrence was given for an equivalent in Alaska ; ar- 
rangements were made for commercial intercourse with 
Canada ; and the adjustment was made of the North- 
western boundary. 

The fishery clauses in this treaty came to an end in 
July, 1885, by a resolution of Congress in 1883, and 



64 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

Canada once more found her fisheries cut off from the 
advantages of free trade. The consequence was that 
all through the season of 1886 disputes arose in regard 
to the interpretation of the Convention of 1818, which 
again came in force. English and American negotia- 
tors formed a treaty on February 15, 1888, which was 
transmitted to the Senate by President Cleveland, with 
a modus vivendi until the matter be settled. The 
treaty was rejected, and the modus vivendi which re- 
mained in effect expired on February 15, 1890. 

By this arrangement the American fishing vessels 
had been allowed to enter Canadian harbors for the pur- 
chase of supplies, transhipment of catch, and shipping 
of crews, by paying annual license fees of $1.50 per ton. 
From these fees Canada received $9,985,80 during the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1889. 1 The sentiment of 
the fishmen of both countries is in favor of greater 
freedom to buy and sell in each others ports. Indeed, 
Senator Scott of the Dominion Parliment in commenting 
on the liberality which should be shown to the United 
States, said : " We want to deal with you, we want to 
trade with you, without the intervention of British 
plenipotentiaries." This object can be accomplished 
by a treaty of liberal reciprocity, commercial union or 
annexation. 

In the fourth unity lie the province of British 
Columbia and our territory of Alaska. 

The province of British Columbia is a natural con- 
tinuation of our own Northern Pacific States in geo- 
graphical character, and but a few degrees lower in 
temperature, it promises the same agricultural possi- 
bilities. In this province, as well as in the northwest, 
the ocean currents of the Pacific Gulf Stream or Kuro 
Siwa have a great influence in distributing heat, and 
make the climate equal to that fully twenty degrees 
farther south. 

The soil is productive and capable of growing fruits 

1 See Public Accounts— Canada, 1889., p. 44. 



CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 65 

in abundance, and in as great variety as in England. 
Owing to the mountainous character of the country 
the land is used for grazing, and cattle grow fat in 
verdant pastures. Earl Dufferin has reported that 
" under wise local legislation the province of British 
Columbia has prospered greatly, despite the neglect 
which it long suffered at the hands of the home 
government, which could neither appreciate the value 
nor understand the needs of that far distant 
dependency." 1 

The fisheries are valuable, and to encourage those 
engaged in them, the laws of British Columbia are 
very liberal in allowing the use of vacant public lands. 

Gold is found in Texada Island, near Bute Inlet in 
large quantities. The total value of this precious metal 
exported from the province since confederation, to 
June 1888, was, $15,834,821. In Vancouvers Island 
there are rich deposits of coal. 

The sixth territorial unity is of enormous extent and 
includes the province of Manitoba and the Northwest 
Territories. This is the great Canadian forest that 
offers unlimited natural resources to the future popu- 
lation. Trees grow even as far north as the Arctic 
Ocean, and do much to ameliorate the climate and act 
as wind-breaks against the cold currents from the 
frozen seas. The warm Chinook winds from the 
Pacific Ocean, distribute themselves over our north- 
western states and sensibly temper the climate of 
that entire region. Furthermore, the numerous lakes 
and Hudson's Bay raise the temperature of the air. 
And the fact that this territorial unity is not in as 
high an elevation as our states immediately south of it, 
has much to do with the similarity in their climates, 
since the height of a place has a much greater influ- 
ence on the temperature than its latitude. As the 
forests of the Dominion are converted into farm lands, 
the temperature of our states in the fifth geographical 

1 Our New Alaska— Charles Hallock. 



66 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

unity must approach nearer the temperature of the 
country farther north, and the extremes in winter and 
summer become greater. 

Since this unity is covered with primeval forests, 
water*by small streams as well as great rivers, its re- 
sources are yet undeveloped, but it promises to become 
the finest wheat growing country in the world. Since 
the completion of the Canadian Pacific Kailway and 
consequent easy transportation of large crops to the 
east, the eyes of a population on both sides of the fron- 
tier have been turned toward this vast expanse of ara- 
ble territory, with virgin soil as fertile as our most 
promising lands in the west, extending from our north- 
ern states almost to the Arctic Ocean, and from the 
territory in the immediate vicinity of Hudson's Bay to 
the Rocky Mountains. A committee of the Canadian 
Senate charged with examining the rosources and capa- 
bilities of this region north of the Saskatchewan water- 
shed, reported : 

" That within the scope of the committee's inquiry 
there is a possible area of 656,000 square miles suitable 
for barley, and 316,000 square miles suitable for wheat. 
That there is a pastoral area of 860,000 square miles, 
26,000 miles of which are open prairie, with occasional 
groves, the remainder being more or less wooded; 
274,000 square miles, including the prairie, may be 
considered as arable land. That throughout this arable 
and pastoral area, latitude bears no direct relation to 
summer isotherms, the spring flowers and the buds of 
deciduous trees appearing as early north of Great 
Slave Lake as at Winnipeg, St. Paul and Minneapolis, 
Kingston and Ottawa, and earlier along the Peace, 
Liard, and some minor western affluents of the Great 
Mackenzie River, where the climate resembles that of 
Western Ontario." 

In 1887 the province of Manitoba produced a crop 
of 14,000,000 bushels of wheat at the average rate of 
32.4 bushels per acre. 



CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 67 

Stock raising has naturally engaged attention in a 
country with pastures and crops so favorable to the 
production of food essential to animal life. The 
ranches in the Northwest sent 4500 head of cattle to 
Great Britain in 1888, and the experiment of sending 
beef direct from the ranches in refrigerator cars has 
been successfully tried. In Alberta, ]N. W. T., horse- 
breeding is a special industry. This district, and that 
of Assiniboia raised in 1888 about 108,361 cattle, 23,- 
868 horses, and 31,435 sheep on 108 ranches. 

The mineral resources of this unity are yet undevel- 
oped, but there are indications of valuable and exten- 
sive coal beds on the Saskatchewan, Souris and Atha- 
basca rivers, estimated at 65,000 square miles in area. 

Leaving this fertile country, and passing by the 
settlements of hardy factors and traders of the Hudson 
Bay Company, we arrive at a land of little fertility, 
which, by a singular euphemism has been called Lab- 
rador, cultivable land, and as the French called it, 
"Le Bras d'Or," although this precious metal is not 
found there. The climate, like that of the Maritime 
Provinces, is subject to great vicissitudes. In summer 
the thermometer reaches 85° and in winter it is often 
b>elow zero. 

Along the coast massive precipices of granite beat 
back the surf of the ocean. 

The inhabitants are four-fifths Esquimaux, and en- 
gage in the seal and other fisheries for which this 
region is noted. 

The Island of Newfoundland, lying southeast of 
Labrador, belongs to Great Britain, but has not joined 
the Dominion of Canada. Off its southern shore are 
the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, which have 
been retained by France to protect her valuable inter- 
ests in the fisheries. They are sometimes ranked as 
third in importance among the French colonies ; never- 
theless, the fact that France has possessions on this 
continent is frequently overlooked. 



68 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

When France gave up Newfoundland in 1713, she 
retained the exclusive privilege of fishing on the south- 
ern shore, which was confirmed in the treaty of 1763, 
when the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were re- 
stored to her. They were lost to France by the first 
war of the Revolution, and restored again by the peace 
of Amiens, but the next war returned them to Great 
Britain. Finally, in the treaties which followed the 
fall of Napoleon, Great Britain not only restored these 
important islands but confirmed certain privileges of 
fishing on the western shore of Newfoundland and 
adjacent islands and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence r 
which had been granted in the peace of 1783. 

The islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon are not only 
capable of being made impregnable, but their situation 
commands the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
England, therefore, by treaty arrangement, permits the 
maintenance of a garrison of but 50 soldiers. 1 

In 1885 the population was 5765, allowing for 1405 
persons not permanently settled. In addition to these 
we may add a population composed of those who are 
engaged in fisheries, la population flottante, which is 
estimated at 8000 persons. 2 The established church 
is the Roman Catholic. The Protestants have one 
church and minister. 

On accomnt of the sterility of the country, agricul- 
ture only yields sufficient products to meet the few 
wants of the inhabitants. The great fishing indus- 
tries caused the exportation, in 1884, of products- 
amounting to 14,639,226 francs. 

The colony is represented at Paris by a superior 
Council of Colonies. The administration of affairs in 
the colony is in charge of a Commandant, who enforces 
the decisions and instructions of the General Council, 
composed of twelve members, and the Colonial Com- 

1. Rambaud's " La France Coloniale." — Statement of Lieutenant Nicolas- 
of the Infantry of Marine. 

2. Ibid., p. 600, 603. 



CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS. 69 1 

mission. He is assisted by chiefs of the Interior and 
Judiciary, and a Privy Council. 

The colony is divided into two communes, each hav- 
ing a Municipal Council. That of St* Pierre is com- 
posed of a Mayor, 3 Adjutants and 16 Municipal 
Councellors. That of Miquelon of a Mayor, 2 
Adjutants and 12 Municipal Councellors. 



CHAPTER IV. 
LEGAL AND INDUSTRIAL. 

LAWS. 

The law of Canada, under the French regime was a 
mixture of the Roman law and the feudal customs of 
the Franks, especially known as the Customary Law 
of Paris, which embodies the principles of the feudal 
system. According to this system lands or signeuries 
were held immediately from the King as fiefs, on con- 
dition of the seignetirs rending homage on accession to 
their estates. On the death of the seigneur the eldest 
son took the chateau and half the land. But where 
there were only two sons the elder took the chateau 
and two-thirds of the land. He received a greater 
portion of all the fisheries and timber on the estate, 
and fines on all transfers of property. 

The feudal system was abolished in 1854, but its 
effects was lasting and are very perceptible in the 
province of Quebec. The Canadians were so much 
attached to this species of patriarchal tenure that they 
did not avail themselves of the socage tenure laws in- 
troduced by England after the conquest. England 
then introduced her own criminal law, but for civil 
cases the French Canadian law was used. Habeas 
Corpus was introduced in 1785 by " An ordinance for 
securing the liberty of the subject and for the preven- 
tion of imprisonment out of the Province." 

The laws relative to property and civil rights and 
the procedure of the courts are not uniform in the 
several provinces. 

The sources of the law are: 1. Imperial Acts; 2. 



LAWS. 71 

Dominion Acts ; 3. Provincial Acts ; 4. Orders in 
Council ; 5. Orders of the Dominion Parliament and 
Provincial Legislatures ; 6. Old Laws and Usages ; 7. 
Instructions to the Governor-General. 1 

The judges, with the exception of police magistrates 
and justices of the peace, and probate judges in Nova 
Scotia and New Brunswick, are appointed by the 
Governor - General. But the British North America 
Act provides that, in appointing judges of the courts 
of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 
selection must be made from the Bars of those prov- 
inces. The highest court in the Dominion is the 
Supreme Court, which has an appellate jurisdiction in 
all matters, but from its decisions, in civil cases, there 
is a right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the 
British Privy Council. This is a bond of security 
which the Canadians retain, as British subjects, because 
it leaves the final adjudication of legal matters in the 
hands of the mother country with her old and well- 
established laws. In the provinces the courts are on 
very nearly the same plan as in England, with superior 
courts vested with appellate jurisdiction, and lower 
courts in each province. 

In criminal cases, by the act 51 Vic. c. 43, there is 
no appeal to the Privy Council. The tendency is to 
make the law uniform throughout the Dominion. The 
various codes, however, do not differ greatly from those 
in the United States, and since this is the great test in 
the formation of extradition treaties, there is a desire 
on the part of diplomatists to extend the list of crimes 
covered by the Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The tenth 
article of that treaty embraces only the crimes of mur- 
der, assault with intent to commit murder, piracy, 
arson, robbery, forgery, and the utterance of forged 
paper. By a convention between the United States 
and Great Britain, signed at Washington July 12th, 
1889, and transmitted to the Senate by President Har- 

1. Vide J. E. C. Munroe, "The Constitution of Canada." 



72 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

rison on December 17th, 1889, it was agreed in Article 
1 as follows : 

The provisions of the said tenth article are hereby- 
made applicable to the following additional crimes : 

1. Manslaughter. 

2. Counterfeiting or altering money ; uttering or 
bringing into circulation counterfeit or altered money. 

3. Embezzlement, larceny, obtaining money, goods 
or valuable securities by false pretenses ; receiving any 
money, valuable security or other property, knowing 
the same to have been embezzled, stolen or fraudulently 
obtained. 

4. Fraud by a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trustee, 
or director or officer of any company, made criminal 
by the laws of both countries. 

5. Perjury, or subornation of perjury. 

6. Kape, abduction, child-stealing, kidnapping. 

7. Burglary, house-breaking or shop-breaking. 

8. Piracy, by the Laws of Nations. 

9. Revolt, or conspiracy to revolt, by two or more 
persons on board a ship on the high seas, against the 
authority of the master ; wrongfully sinking or destroy- 
ing a vessel at sea, or attempting to do so ; assaults on 
board a ship on the high seas, with intent to do griev- 
ous bodily harm. 

10. Crimes and offenses against the laws of both 
countries for the suppression of slavery and slave- 
trading. 

Extradition is also to take place for participation in 
any of the crimes mentioned in this convention, or in 
the aforesaid tenth article ; provided such participa- 
tion be punishable by the laws of both countries. 



FINANCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTIONS. 

In all matters of commerce the tendency has been to 
make the relations between the two countries as simple 



FINANCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTIONS. 73 

as possible. The currency of Canada, by the Act 34 
Vic, chap. 4, was placed on the same decimal system as 
that of the United States. The monetary system is 
based on the Act 34 Vic. chap. 5, and is characterized 
by the same methods which are in use in England and 
the United States, but it is on a gold basis and not the 
bi-metallic system. The banks maintain a system of 
exchanges but have not yet adopted our clearing-house 
system. The number of incorporated banks in 1888 
was 42, nearly all having their centres or principal offices 
in the Dominion. Quebec has 14 ; Ontario, 13 ; Nova 
Scotia, 9 ; New Brunswick 3, and Manitoba and Brit- 
ish Columbia, one each. Their liabilities in 1888 were 
$166,344,852 ; assets, $244,975,223. Even in the de- 
velopment of the banking system the French influence 
can be seen. In Quebec there are many banks con- 
ducted under French names and methods, and their 
operations are more confined to a limited space and 
not spread over the Dominion by numerous branches, 
as are the thrifty and prosperous banks of Nova Scotia 
and New Brunswick. There are, in addition to these, 
50 government savings banks, under the management 
of the Finance Department. 

The establishment of Post Office Savings Banks in 
Canada was intended to encourage the making of small 
deposits by the poor or working classes in institutions 
where perfect security is assured. The Post Office 
Act of 1867 provides for their formation and declares 
that a deposit must not be less than $1.00 or greater 
than $1000. In Ontario the system is on a good 
working basis, and the offices number 317. In Quebec 
the deposits have been smaller than was expected, a 
fact attributable to the old dislike of the French Cana- 
dian population to adopt new methods. The number 
of offices in this province is 75 ; in Nova Scotia, 22 ; 
in New Brunswick, 14 ; in Manitoba, 2, and in British 
Columbia, 3. The rate of interest in all government 
banks is four per cent. 



74 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

Before confederation the several provinces had their 
OAvn postal systems, but by the Act 31 Vic, chap. 10, 
a uniform system was established for the Dominion. 

International correspondence between Canada and 
the United States, in addition to the provisions of the 
Universal Postal Union, is regulated by agreements of 
1875 and 1888. Each country retains the money col- 
lected without making returns on account of postage 
to either country. The system of Canada as well as 
the United States has had a steady growth both in 
the number of post offices and in the business trans- 
acted. The following statistics show the increase 
since confederation : 

1868. 1888. 

Number of post offices, . . 3,638 7,671 

Letters posted, . . . 18,100,000 80,200,000 

Postal Cards, . . . 16,586,000 

Number of letters per head, . 5.37 16.13 

In reference to the debt of Canada, her financial con- 
dition may be divided into three periods : 

1. From 1867, when the confederation was begun 
and the debt was $75,728,641, to 1874, when the union 
of provinces was completed and the debt was $108,- 
324,965. This increase in the Federal debt was caused 
by the Dominion government assuming the debts of 
the provinces, amounting to $109,430,148 ; but the 
period is marked by increasing revenue and sur- 
pluses. 1 

2. From 1874 to 1878, during which period decreas- 
ing revenue was noticed, because of the depression in 
trade both in the United States and Canada, and the 
inequality in tariffs. 

3. From 1878 to 1889, a period marked by reduc- 
tion in the tariff and consequent accumulation of sur- 
pluses and increasing revenue. During this time the 
government incurred the vast expenditure of $24,000,- 

1. Budget Speech — Minister of Finance, March 5, 1889. 



FINANCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE INSTITUTIONS. 75- 

000 for the construction of the Canadian Pacific Rail- 
way, 1 and the debt increased to $234,531,358. 

The debt of the United States, according to the 
American Almanac for 1889, is $1,705,992,320.58, or 
$20.42 per head of the population. That of Canada is 
$47.16 per head of its population. But these figures 
cannot be used in comparison to show greater national 
prosperity on the part of the United States, because 
the Dominion of Canada has adopted a policy of cen- 
tralizing all the large public expenses, thus relieving 
the provinces of the burden of supporting the adminis- 
tration of justice, militia, penetentiaries, immigration 
and quarantine, and the salaries of Governors. The 
Dominion also pays the interest on the assumed debts 
of the provinces and gives them subsidies for the main- 
tenance of the official service. This financial system is 
directly the reverse of that prevailing in this country, 
where each state is self- supporting and conducts its 
finances without friction with the federal relations and 
on an independent basis. The financial independence 
of the provinces, now that the confederation is on a 
firm foundation, would tend to promote among the 
people a feeling of self-reliance and capacity, by es- 
tablishing a revenue by such means as each province 
sees fit. 

The method of taxation is different from that gener- 
ally employed in the United States. The provinces, 
if we except the minor taxes, such as those on legal 
documents in Quebec, and mines in Nova Scotia, have 
no revenue systems. The power of taxation for both 
services is in the federal government, and the revenue 
is obtained by a tariff on imports and exports and ex- 
cise and the earnings of post-offices and public works. 

In the United States the people pay taxes not only 
to their own states, on personal and real property, but 
also indirectly to the federal government. Thus, tax- 
ation in Canada is for the most part indirect, and can- 

1. Hansard, 314, p. 313. 



76 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

not be compared with that in this country. Taxation 
in Canada for the year 1888, was $5.66 per head, while 
in the United States it was $5.51 per head in the fed- 
eral government, and $1.08 per head in the states. 1 
Thus, the people of this country pay 93 cents per head 
greater taxation than the subjects in Canada. 

The annexation of Canada might lead to the adop- 
tion of direct taxation, toward which the United States 
has been tending. Since indirect taxation is an inci- 
dent of centralization and is not encouraged by some 
political economists because it raises the price of mer- 
chandise, and poor people, receiving less wages, do not 
know how much they are paying for their purchases. 

COMMUNICATION AND COMMERCE. 

The facilities of communication on the continent and 
between the two countries have so greatly increased 
that it is now possible to travel with ease and comfort 
to the most widely separated parts. 

There has been a gradual growth in railroad con- 
struction, since the building of the first railway in 
Canada in 1836 in Quebec, which was sixteen miles in 
length, to the confederation in 1867, when there were 
2258 miles in operation. Then the Dominion govern- 
ment agreed to take upon itself the construction of 
several lines connecting the provinces, and railroad 
construction made rapid progress, until, with the com- 

Eletion of the Canadian Pacific Kailway in 1888, from 
iake Mpissing to Port Moody on the Pacific coast, 
the length of railways in Canada amounted to 12,701 
miles. In the United States in 1888 there were 
152,726 miles completed. 2 

In competition with the railroads in the two coun- 
-tries there are water routes by canals and great natural 
.highways. The most important in the world is that 

1. Budget Speech — Minister of Finance, Canada, 1889. 

2. American Almanac, 



COMMUNICATION AND COMMERCE. 77 

known as the St. Lawrence route, from Duluth to the 
Straits of Belle Isle, which, formed by the Great Lakes 
and St. Lawrence river, is 2384 miles long and com- 
mon to })oth countries as far as Buffalo. Beginning 
here, the Erie canal extends 352 miles, until it is con- 
nected with the Hudson river at Troy, thus affording 
.an American water route to the Atlantic seaboard for 
western grains and manufactures, in competition with 
the parallel lines of railroads across New York and 
Pennsylvania. The route to Montreal froin Lake Erie 
is through the Welland canal, Lake Ontario and the 
Oalops, Rapide Plat, Ferran's Point, Cornwall, Beau- 
harnois and Lachine canals, comprising the St. Law- 
rence system. 

The St. Marie river not being navigable, connection 
between Lakes Huron and Superior is by a canal on 
the American side, one mile in length and eighty 
feet wide. But owing to the greatness of travel on 
this canal the Canadian government is constructing 
another three-quarters of a mile in length and one 
hundred and fifty feet wide, which is expected to be 
ready for use in May 1892. This is the great water 
route for carrying the products of the west and north- 
west to the ocean vessels at Montreal, and is in di- 
rect competition with the Canadian Pacific, Grand 
Trunk and St. Lawrence system of railways. The 
successful passage of an ocean steamer from Liver- 
pool to Chicago, in 1888, has raised the possibilities 
for the maintenance of a direct route between the 
Great Lakes and Europe. This would make it 
possible to convey freight for one-third the rate 
charged on railways, and consequently nearly all the 
grain of the west would pass off in this direction. In 
order to make the scheme practicable, it would be 
necessary to enlarge the Canadian canals, at a probable 
estimate" of $70,000,000, which would be one-third 
more than the cost of the Nicaragua canal. 1 

1. See Letter of Henry K. Wicksteed, N. Y. limes, Jan. 31, 1890. 



78 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

There has been a steady decrease in traffic on canals 
in contrast with the increase on railroads. This 
seems to indicate that canals are preferred for short 
distances, but where quickness is desired great ship- 
ments are sent by rail. The number of Canadian 
vessels employed on the canals and Great Lakes ex- 
ceeds that of the United States. The cause of this is 
attributed to the restrictions and prohibitions of the 
United States navigation law r s, which by a false theory 
of protection are depressing shipping interests. Vessels 
not exclusively owned in the United States cannot 
carry freight between two American ports. Canadian 
vessels can ply between Chicago and Montreal, but not 
between Chicago and Buffalo. Therefore, the surplus 
crops of the west are carried off on Canadian vessels 
by the St. Lawrence route. The tonnage of Canadian 
vessels in 1888 amounted to 1,089,642, which is a 
much greater showing, in proportion to the respective 
populations and trade relations, than the 4,191,916 
tonnage of vessels in the United States. 

The fertile lands of our western states have been 
developed by the introduction of agricultural machin- 
ery and railroads. According to the last census the 
area suitable for farming is 1,500,000 square miles, or 
960,000,000 acres. If we deduct from this the land 
already taken for farming, amounting to 536,081,835 
acres, we have left but a small amount of unoccupied 
land in proportion to the increase of population. The 
number of inhabitants to the square mile in the United 
States is 13.92 ; in Canada, 1.35. Thus the surplus 
population of the United States must, in a few years, 
turn toward the Canadian northwest. 

The northwest has been brought in direct communi- 
cation with the Maritime Provinces by the Canadian 
Pacific Railroad, which has been likened to the long 
sought " Northwest Passage." Before its completion 
it was necessary for these provinces to do all their 
trading with Asia through the United States, but now 



COMMUNICATION AND COMMERCE. 79> 

the trade from the importation of such articles as tea 
and silk, and the exportation of machinery, cotton and 
general merchandise, was, in 1888, 13,048 tons. The 
farmers of our northwestern states find it cheaper, in 
some instances, to send their crops by this route to the 
vessels at Montreal. 

England is proud of her great territorial expansion,, 
and now that the Canadian Pacific Railway has 
brought British Columbia within fourteen days of the 
British coast, she sees a method of further advancing 
and protecting her commercial interests. It is another 
route to India — and entirely through British territory. 
If for any reason the route, which she now generally 
takes through the Suez canal should be closed, as 
would be likely in case of war arising out of the 
"eastern question," or if the route around the Cape 
were cut off by enemies' ships, she has a third route 
through Canada which can be taken in thirty-two days, 
or a few days less than by the other two. England 
has been quick to see this new advantage and has- 
willingly cooperated with the Dominion government 
in the construction of a great line of mail steamers 
which will run from the city of Vancouver, on the 
Pacific, to Hong Kong, China and Japan. 1 The vessels 
will be of modern construction and capable of good 
service as cruisers during war panics. 

The waters between Canada and England will soon 
be traveled by a new line of steamers which will ac- 
complish the voyage in six days. 

The total imports of Canada during the year 1889- 
amounted to $109,673,000, of which $50,537,000 were 
on goods from the United States, and $42,317,000 
from those of Great Britain. Thus its trade relations 
with us are greater than with the mother country, and 
nearly one-half of its world imports. Canadian ex- 
ports to the United States were $34,522,000. 2 

1. Hansard, " Parliamentary Debates," 338, p. 820. 

2. Trade and Navigation Report, Ottawa, 1890. 



$0 THE DOMINION OP CANADA. 

Our trade relations with Canada can also be empha- 
sized from the fact that exports to the Republics of 
South America during the same year amounted to 
•$30,744,497, and to Central America $11,249,936. The 
sum of these figures is less than that indicating our 
Canadian sales. 

This is used as an argument in favor of commercial 
union. For, if we desire, as was indicated by the Pan- 
American Congress, to enter into reciprocal relations 
with the nations to the south of us, how much more 
should we desire to extend our trade with Canada, 
where the balance is in our favor. 

Unless our Federal government changes its policy 
of protection, we shall see the trade of Canada becom- 
ing formidable to us, and more independent as it rap- 
idly builds up communication with South America, 
the West Indies, and by means of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway, the nations of Japan and China. The estab- 
lishment of commercial union with Canada would be 
but a step forward toward the sound policy of free 
trade, and could be tried, as an experiment, as to the 
advisability of its further extension. For the nego- 
tiation of a treaty of this kind with Canada would 
probably result in establishing free trade, since • other 
nations would demand that they receive the same priv- 
ileges. Trade is steadily increasing between the two 
-countries, regardless of tariff. Commerce is causing 
Americans to think that, if commercial union is se- 
cured, the five million Canadians will soon desire 
further to enjoy the politics and commerce of our pop- 
ulation of sixty-five millions, by annexation. Commer- 
cial union would be a practical equivalent of annexa- 
tion, for the great North American continent would be 
under the same commercial law, and by its great sys- 
tem of railroads and other communications, its internal 
resources and influence would stand out as exclusive 
against the rest of the world. 



CHAPTER V.— POLITICAL. 

CONSTITUTION. 

The Canadian colonies have always been deprived 
of representation in the Imperial government, and,, 
nntil the recent Dominion Constitution, prescribed by- 
act of the British Parliament in 1867, they had few 
privileges of self-government. 

The colonial government given to Canada after the 
fall of the French power was not even as liberal as 
that under which the New England colonies had 
struggled. The home government understood the- 
peculiar nature of its subjects and established a 
strong and almost tyrannical colonial administration,, 
while the Canadians were content to be ruled by a. 
Governor and Council, since they knew no government 
better than that of Louis XV., and did not desire- 
self government and legislation according to the con- 
stitutional system of a governor and two branches 
or houses. 

The several Colonial Secretaries who were appointed 
do not seem to have worked for the best interests 
of the colonies, since their terms of office were depend- 
ent upon the success of their party. Each secretary 
understood the peculiar policy pursued by his party 
toward Canadian affairs and made it his custom not 
to acquire a suitable knowledge of the needs of his- 
people, but to study how he might retain his place 
and salary. Thus, while the leading features of 
the Canadian policy were changing often with party 
movements, the details of carrying out that policy 
were in the hands of irresponsible agents who sat in 
their high seats in England. 



82 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The government established by the Constitutional 
Act of 1791 1 did not avert the abuses and mis- 
government which resulted from differences in party- 
politics. The province was divided into Upper and 
Lower Canada with a separate legislature in each, 
composed of a Council and Assembly. The executive 
power was vested in a Lieutenant-Governor of Upper 
Canada and a Governor of Lower Canada, who had 
also a certain control over the Upper province. 
There was an Executive Council, composed of officers 
of the Crown, presiding over both provinces. These 
provinces were then, as now, essentially different in 
ethnical character and political knowledge. 

The colonies were satisfied for years afterward with 
the rule of England ; but when the increased popula- 
tion became fused with English and American settlers, 
it began to feel its strength, and appreciating the 
rights conferred by the Constitution of 1791 to desire 
their substantial exercise and further extension. Dis- 
satisfaction naturally commenced in Lower Canada, the 
most powerful and progressive of the six colonies, and 
spread to the others. The question of becoming 
independent often agitated the minds of the Cana- 
dians, and after the triumphs of the revolutionary 
principle in Europe during the ten years preceding 
1840, the excitement of the people was strongly in 
favor of a government similar to that " composing the 
industrious, moral and prosperous confederations of 
the United States." 

The Assembly of Lower Canada, in 1834, passed a 
set of resolutions, asking for a Legislative Council 
chosen by the people, instead of by the Crown, and the 
power of revising the constitution. They declared 
that by this measure the British Parliament " would 
preserve a friendly intercourse between Great Britain 
and this province, as her colony, as long as the tie 
between us shall continue, and as her ally whenever 

1. Geo. Ill, ch. 31. 



CONSTITUTION. 83 

the course of events may change our relative position" 
The sentiment of the people as represented in the 
lower honse became so strong for reform of existing 
government or entire independence, that they 

"Resolved, that the neighbouring states have a 
form of government very fit to prevent abuses of 
power, and very effective in repressing them ; that the 
reverse of this order of things has always prevailed in 
Canada under the present form of government; that 
there exists in the neighbouring states a stronger and 
more general attachment to the national institutions 
than in any other country, and that there exists also 
in those states a guarantee for the progressive advance 
of their political institutions toward perfection, in the 
revision of the same at short and determinate inter- 
vals, by conventions of the people, in order that they 
may without shock or violence be adapted to the 
actual state of things.'' 1 Not content with these bold, 
and, as the British thought, treasonable expressions, 
they added that " the institutions of Great Britain are 
altogether different from our own," and " that the unan- 
imous consent with which all American States have 
adopted and extended the elective system, shows that 
it is adapted to the wishes, manners, and social state of 
the inhabitants of this continent? 

These numerous petitions, complaints and demands 
for redress of grievances were caused by the desire of 
the French Canadians to keep alive their nationality, 
the influence of American agitators, and the conflict of 
the two races arising out of those land grants which 
we have already investigated, 3 as well as those made 
to the British- American Land Company, which in- 
creased the influence of the mother country. 3 It is not 
necessary to trace the history of this agitation onward 
through its various stages. The people demanded : 4 

1. Resolutions, 21st February, 1834. 

2. Vide ante, pages 14, 15, 16, 38 and 39. 

3. Address of October, 1836. 

4. February 25, 1836. 



84 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

1. An Elective Council. 

2. The repeal of the Tenures Act, and the act 
creating the British-American Land Company. 

3. Complete Parliamentary control over the whole 
of the lands belonging to the colony. 

4. Complete control over revenue and expenditures. 
The clamor for an elective legislative body was 

made by the French element, which was opposed to 
the English, and desired authority o\er the immediate 
representatives of the Crown. The Assembly withheld 
the supplies, and there followed acts of disorder, caus- 
ing the rebellion of 1837-8 for national independence r 
which was soon put down by those who were loyal to 
England and desired her supremacy. 

The leader of the revolt was Louis Joseph Papineau r 
an ambitious French Canadian of mild manners, but 
possessing a discontented mind filled with theories for 
the advancement of the people of his nationality. He 
thought that by causing the Canadians to revolt he 
might gain the independence of Canada, with himself 
as Dictator, after the manner of the revolutionary 
leaders of France. 1 

The constitution of Lower Canada was suspended,* 
and Lord Durham, who was appointed to administer 
the pro visionary government, made a report on the 
conditions and needs of the province in which he re- 
commended the restrictions of the French language and 
the union of the British North American possesions r 
because " it would enable the province to cooperate 
for all common purposes, and above all, it would form 
a great and powerful people, possessing the means of 
securing good and responsible government for itself, 
and which, under the protection of the British Empire, 
might in some measure, counterbalance the preponder- 
ous and increasing influence of the United States on 

1. Vide United Service Journal, 1838. 

2. 31 Geo. III., c. 31. 



CONSTITUTION. 85 

the American continent." 1 The result was a bill 
brought forward by Lord John Russel, during the ses- 
sion of 1839, providing for a new constitution. 

The debates that followed were interesting and im- 
portant, and local and responsible government received 
full consideration. Lord John Russel did not want 
separation, but said that the interference of the Impe- 
rial Parliament in affairs of colonial government ous:ht 
to be confined to extreme cases. Therefore, by the 
constitution of 1840, 2 the two provinces of Upper and 
Lower Canada, which had been separate since 1791, 
were united, and a government established whereby 
England removed the management of local affairs from 
the combinations and agitations in home politics, and 
permitted Canada to approach nearer the ideal self- 
government system of Teutonic states. Representation 
was divided equally between the two provinces, al- 
though Lower Canada was more populous. 

Lord Syndenham, who came out as Governor, suc- 
ceeded, during his short term of office, in counteract- 
ing the French-Canadian influence by procuring an 
Anglo-Canadian majority in both Houses of the Parlia- 
ment of the united province. This caused a feeling of 
security for a time in the country, since legislation was 
toward securing titles to real property and the aboli- 
tion of the feudal system. One of the most successful 
arguments to excite rebellion had been that the inhab- 
itants would free themselves from seignioral dues. 3 

The political movements of the times succeeding, 
were the endeavors of the " Liberals " and " Conserva- 
tives " to get the upper hand, and of the Governors to 
please both elements of the population. 

The Liberals had in their party the French-Canadian 
faction, headed by Mr. Papineau, who had been con- 
spicuous in the late rebellion. They frequently agi- 

1. Constitutional History, p. 53. J. G, Bourinot. 

2. Act of 3 and 4 Victoria, c. 35. 

3. Hansard, LVIL, p. 19. 



86 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

tated the subject of annexation or independence, and 
were encouraged by American speculators and those 
who had strong democratic ideas. It was through 
their manceuvering that the Rebellion Losses Indemnity- 
Bill was passed through both Houses and received,, 
from Lord Elgin, his sanction and recommendation to 
the home government. Annexation associations were 
formed in a few places, but the movement was confined 
to no particular party. It was noticeable that persons 
of the most opposite political views on domestic ques- 
tions forgot their differences and united in their advocacy 
of this great scheme. 1 The annexation manifestoes were 
approved by many who thought that England's policy 
at that time was in favor of getting rid of her colonies. 
The position taken by many of the leading London 
papers, for example, the Times, was such as to convey 
this impression. It is likely that some decisive action 
would have been taken but for the internal disturb- 
ances in the United States which preceded the Civil War. 

Opposed to the Annexationists was a strong party 
consisting of the Roman Catholic clergy, with their 
French-Canadian followers, and the Conservatives. The 
latter, after the passage of the Rebellion Losses In- 
demnity Bill, had banded themselves into a " British 
American League," which was loyal to England and 
instrumental in restoring peace and order. The Con- 
servative party began to lose power, and there was a 
movement in all parties toward reform. 

That part of Canada known as the maritime prov- 
inces does not need as much attention in a constitu- 
tional history, inasmuch as it has not been subject to the 
French influence. It was originally Acadie, but in 
the year 1749 England colonized it and gave it the 
name Nova Scotia, including the provinces of New 
Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The latter 
was constituted a distinct province in 1770, and the 
former in 1784. 

1. See " Canada since the Union of 1841," p. 180. J. C. Dent. 



CONSTITUTION. 87 

These provinces were colonized by English, Scotch 
and U. E. Loyalists, and, therefore, remained in sym- 
pathy with British institutions. Their government 
was more responsible than that of French Canada and 
freer from great internal dissensions. 

It was quite natural, therefore, that Nova Scotia 
should take the first step toward forming a confedera- 
tion of the provinces on the plan of responsible gov- 
ernment so often proposed in political crises. This 
province, with that of New Brunswick, urged the 
union, and there resulted a conference of delegates 
from all the provinces at Quebec, October 10th, 1865, 
in which was formed the foundation of the present 
constitution and government. 

The Fenian movement against Canada in June, 1866, 
did not arise from a desire for annexation, but wa& 
planned by the leader, O'Neil, and his American fol- 
lowers, through sympathy for Irish independence. 
Their intention was to injure England and help Ireland 
gain its freedom. The government of Canada soon re- 
stored peace ; the United States then, as in the subse- 
quent raid of 1869 by the same leader, giving assist- 
ance. 

The British North American Act 1 federally united 
the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Bruns- 
wick, and made provisions for the admission of other 
parts of British North America. The province of 
Canada was divided into the provinces of Ontario and 
Quebec, having their territories co-extensive with the 
old provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. Provincial 
constitutions were given to these provinces according 
to the constitutions existing before the Union Act of 
1840. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick retained the 
same boundaries and provincial constitutions. 

Before entering on the discussion of the constitution 
it would be well to speak of the provinces lately ad- 
mitted into the Dominion of Canada. 

1. 30 and 31 Vic, c. 3. 



B8 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

Manitoba was part of the territory granted to the 
Hudson Bay Company by Charles II. In 1811 the 
Earl of Selkirk, who owned stock in the company, 
purchased a large tract of country covering what is 
now Manitoba, and established a colony of Scotch, 
which was unsuccessful. The company bought it back 
in 1835 and established a government with a Governor 
and Council. 

Legislation over Rupert's Land and the Northwest 
Territories was vested in the Dominion in 1868, when 
a provisional government was established, but owing 
to the consequent conflicting rights of the company and 
the government, a rebellion arose among the French 
half-breeds led by Louis Riel, which resulted in the 
immediate establishment and entrance into the Domin- 
ion, in 1870, of the province of Manitoba. Its govern- 
ment is vested in a Lieutenant-Governor and Executive 
Council, and a Legislative Assembly. 

The Saskatchewan rebellion, in 1882, also led by 
Louis Riel, caused the formation of the provisional 
districts of Assinboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Ath- 
abasca, of the Northwest Territories, with a Lieutenant- 
Governor and Council. 1 

British Columbia was also a part of the Hudson Bay 
Company's territory, but at the time of the " gold 
fever" of 1858, it received distinct territorial govern- 
ment. Vancouvers Island was united with it in 1860. 
In 1871 it entered the Dominion with a constitution 
consisting of a Lieutenant-Governor, an Executive 
Council and a Legislative Assembly. 

Prince Edward Island entered in 1873, and has a 
legislature consisting of a Lieutenant - Governor, a 
Legislative Council and an Assembly. 

The Canadian constitution is based upon the Eng- 
lish, although in many respects it borrowed from the 
American. 

1. For an account of these rebellions, see an article by Thomas D. Ranr 
baut, in the " Political Science Quarterly," March, 1887. 



CONSTITUTION. 89 

The Imperial ^Parliament does not allow local juris- 
diction over those matters which regard imperial inter- 
ests and honor, but maintains a large amount of con- 
trol over the Dominion government, especially by re- 
serving to England the rights of appointing the Gov- 
ernor-general, _ of making treaties and of disallowing 
acts not affecting trade and commerce. The Dominion 
can alter its constitution oniy through the Imperial 
Parliament and not, as in the United States, through 
the ratification by three-fourths of the states, of amend- 
ments proposed by a convention called by Congress or 
proposed by two-thirds of both Houses of that body. 

The local self-government system is in many re- 
spects directly the reverse of that in the United States. 
The provinces possess only the power of legislating on 
those matters allowed by the Dominion constitution. 
The government at Washington, on the other hand, is 
limited in its functions under the constitution by the 
rights of the several states. Here we find the distinc- 
tion between "states" and "provinces." Imperial 
control in all matters can be traced to the fountain- 
head in the will of the sovereign prerogative. 

For the purpose of examining the constitution and 
comparing it with that of the United States let us 
glance briefly at the legislative powers, subject to the 
Imperial Parliament as embodied in the Governor- 
General, Senate and House of Commons in the central 
government, and the legislatures in the provinces. 

The Go\ernor-General, who represents the dignity of 
sovereignty is appointed by the Crown, and can be re- 
moved at pleasure. He appoints the member of the 
Senate from the provinces, and the Lieutenant- Gen- 
erals. "h(rv$ 

The members of the Senate hold ofhce for life, and 
are of the aristocratic class. They therefore vote down 
all measures that may tend to diminish the power of 
the Crown or undermine their secure and lofty posi- 
tions. The lack of real interest for local affairs in the 



90 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

provinces from which they are appointed gives them 
little support in the popular feeling, since their motives 
are not always for the best interest of the people. 
Canadian Senators do not fear the loss of votes at a 
re-election, and therefore do not have that incentive 
which spurs on the American Senator to advance the 
power of his state according to the idea of his con- 
stituents. 

The members of the House of Commons are chosen 
by the people and represent the true democratic ideas 
of government. 

Since 1885 the franchise in Canada has been uniform 
and based on ownership, occupation or income. The 
right to vote is given to all who possess the following 
qualifications : 

1. The ownership or occupation for at least one year 
of premises of the value of $300, in cities ; $200 in 
towns, and $150 in other places. 

2. An income of $300 a year or an annuity of $100, 
provided there has existed a residence of one year. 

3. The father's ownership or occupation, as required 
gives the franchise to the sons. 

4. Possession of fishing outfits to the value of $300.* 
This law regarding electors seems to be an improve- 
ment on the too liberal granting of the franchise prac- 
ticed in many of our states. 

The government of Canada is in three branches, de- 
cidedly unlike the three powers in the United States, 
where there is a balance of power, each branch being 
able to veto the acts of the other two, and each receiv- 
ing its authority from the people. 

Each state, in exercising those attributes not rele- 
gated to the central government under the federal con- 
stitution, is a commonwealth enjoying domestic sov- 
ereignty. By an admirable method adopted by the 
i ramers of the constitution the representation at Wash- 

1. Vide "The Constitution of Canada" p. 7. Prof. I. E. C. Munroe, 1890. 



CONSTITUTION. 91 

ington of states unequal in areas and populations is 
provided. 

The Senate is composed of two members from each 
state, who compose the Federal or Upper House, while 
in the Lower or National House the members are in 
proportion to the population of each state. 

In Canada, the Upper House and the Governor-Gen- 
eral, though the latter is usually careful with his veto, 
work for the interests of the Crown, and the voice of 
the people can only be heard in the Lower House and 
the Privy Council of the Governor-General, according 
to the plan of responsible government. There is no 
equality among the provinces ; each is only a part of 
the whole Dominion. They are represented in the 
Senate as follows : Ontario, 24 members ; Quebec, 24 ; 
Nova Scotia, 10 ; New Brunswick, 10 ; Manitoba, 3 ; 
British Columbia, 3 ; Prince Edward Island, 4 ; and 
the Northwest Territories, 2. 

The House of Commons consists of 215 members, 
representing the provinces as follows : 

Ontario, 92 members, representing a population of 20,904 to each. 
Quebec, 65 members, representing a population of 20,908 to each. 
Nova Scotia, 21 members representing a population of 20,979 to 

each. 
New Brunswick, 16 members, representing a population of 20,077 

to each. 
Manitoba, 5 members, representing a population of 21,728 to each 
British Columbia, 6 members, representing a population of 8,243 

to each. 
Prince Edward Island, 6 members, representing a population of 

18,148 to each. 
The Territories, 4 members, representing a population of 12,090 

to each. 

The number of 65 members for the province of Que- 
bec was fixed, as it was thought that the population 
was of a permanent character, upon which the repre- 
sentation from the other provinces could be based. For 
each of the other provinces the members are in such 



92 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

proportion to the population, as ascertained every ten 
years, as the number 65 bears to the number of the 
population of Quebec. 1 

Thus it may be noticed that in the two provinces 
especially subject to the French and Catholic influence, 
the representation in the Dominion Parliament is greater 
than in the other provinces and sufficient to have a pre- 
ponderating weight in all matters that come before it. 

The Queen has concurrent power over all matters 
within the legislative jurisdiction of the Dominion 
government, since she is not divested of her preroga- 
tive powers, and the Dominion government, in turn, 
over matters in the Provincial government. But with- 
in certain limits each legislature is supreme. 

The people of Canada are thus subject to the mother 
country through three legislative bodies. The lowest 
body is that of the province, headed by a Lieutenant- 
Governor, whose acts can be vetoed by the higher 
bodies. 

England, therefore, has great power over Canada, for 
although she allows the government to regulate all 
matters between the provinces, as well as those per- 
taining to its own internal affairs, she will treat with 
the provinces only through the Dominion Parliament, 
which in turn must direct its communications to the 
Crown through the Colonial Office. 

If the present status of Canada should change, it is 
generally agreed upon that it will take one of these 
three destinies : 

1. Imperial Federation. 

2. Independence and a new American Republic. 

3. Annexation to the United States. 

IMPEEIAL FEDEKATION. 

The tendency of colonies has been to overcome their 
sense of inferiority by resenting the legal exercise of 

1. British North America Act, sec. 51. 



IMPERIAL FEDERATION. 93 

imperial powers. After attaining a mature growth, like 
the child become a man, they desire to leave the protec- 
tion of the mother country and assume sovereign 
powers. 

To counteract this tendency, and secure a closer 
political union between England and her colonies, 
statesmen have long advocated a plan of Imperial 
Federation. 

By this system they propose to establish on a firm 
basis the relation which a dependency bears to the 
centre of power in the empire, and so define and regu- 
late reciprocal obligations that distant and powerful 
colonies can be maintained as parts of one great 
empire. Thus, as the force of gravitation can hold the 
far off planets in subjection to the sun as the centre of 
one system, this Imperial Federation would unite 
states independent in their internal affairs into one 
great nation. 

A new body would be formed for imperial matters, 
and the colonies would enjoy independent legislative 
powers in all matters of self-government. 

The colonies would be on the same footing and free 
to act within the scope of their prescribed powers, but 
all subject to the decision of a common supreme 
tribunal. They would be immediately interested in 
^all international affairs and have a power of voting on 
"all such questions. War, therefore, could not be 
declared by England without the consent of her 
colonies, thus avoiding the often repeated complaint of 
colonies that they are compelled to assist in wars in 
which they have no interest. England could not 
impose taxes without their consent. 

Imperial rights would be exercised to maintain the 
unity of the empire, and promote the common interests 
of all its widespread possessions. There would be 
an universal military organization, and an universal 
commercial union establishing free trade between 
distant parts of the empire. 



94 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

This theory of Imperial Federation is not one 
peculiar to modern colonial reformers, but is the out- 
come of ideas long cherished by those who believe in 
self-government. If we trace back through the events 
of colonial history of the United States, and examine 
carefully the charters granting lands in America, we 
shall see that the colonies enjoyed local autonomy 
subject to the sovereignty of the Crown. 

In the event of Imperial Federation the present 
colonies would tend to become sovereignties, and 
representatives in the federal congress would be 
partly ambassadorial. The representation from distant 
states with democratic ideas would tend to abolish the 
English hereditary nobility. Thus it is a question 
whether England would lose or gain power by this 
scheme. 

The advocates of this system belong to both parties 
in England, and for the purpose of discussing its 
practicability, are bound together in a society called the 
Federation League. Sir John Macdonald, the Premier 
of Canada, is a member, and has for his associates a 
wealthy class who think that by this method the 
annexation or independence of Canada would be 
retarded. 

The Marquis of Lome, in a work entitled " Im- 
perial Federation," says : 

" Does not disintegration loom in the future, and is 
not the independence of Australia, and the annexation 
of Canada, a result sure to follow the local freedom 
practiced throughout the Anglo-Saxon Empire ?" 

INDEPENDENCE. 

The recent growth of nations has been toward dem- 
ocracy. In former times the people never conceived 
the idea of a social condition different from that in 
which they were born, but as intelligence spread and 
knowledge became general, the principles of action in 



INDEPENDENCE. 95 

economics, education and religion advanced toward 
democracy. 

The people have gradually learned -that they are 
sovereign and constitute the state. Political indepen- 
dence, therefore, has raised itself from the relics of re- 
ligious superstition and feudalism. Since the separa- 
tion of the American colonies from the mother country 
in which Canada refused to join, struggling nations 
have turned to the example of the North American 
Republic for political reform. 

England may expect the separation of all her colo- 
nies. Her course in regard to them has been a bene- 
ficial one, but not made for ever. The people of the 
colonies can move an overwhelming preponderance of 
power against existing institutions. They are thous- 
ands of miles from the mother country and almost 
independent in their self-government. Thus the only 
tie that binds is the military and diplomatic protection 
of England. Does Canada need this protection ? 

The confederation has proved of great benefit to the 
country in creating an almost national existence, and 
was brought about by Canadian statesmen. It was a 
step toward Imperial Federation, since in all matters 
concerning their interests England consults Canada, 
and has appointed on such commissions, as thatof the 
fisheries men who were especially interested in the 
promotion of Canadian affairs. Then, the idea of fed- 
eration has been, in a small degree, carried out by 
Canada having a resident in London, known as High 
Commissioner, who acts in accordance with his instruc- 
tions from the Dominion government. The first com- 
missioner was Sir Alexander Gait, who was followed 
by Sir Charles Tupper. 

England has often assured Canada that she will pro- 
tect its interests in the negotiations of all treaties, and 
has evinced a desire to retain only the treaty-making 
power. This, then, is intended as a link of connection 
whereby England, through honor and affection may 



96 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

continue her protection, at the same time allowing the 
Dominion Parliament almost sovereign powers. 

Canada has passed through the stages of develop- 
ment usual in all nations from the despotism under 
the old regime to the constitutional period, when the 
struggle between the monarch and the people took 
place, which led to the present self-government. It is 
but a short step forward to complete independence. 
Whether this will occur in the near future is a question 
which must be determined by the majority of the 
Canadian people, but political sentiment is divided 
between the Conservatives, Liberals and French Na- 
tionalists. 

The Conservatives are the old Canadians who still 
cling to the British flag, because under its protection 
they feel secure. They are the wealthier class of the 
population and compose the society immediately out- 
side of the royal and aristocratic retinue attached to- 
the Governor- General. 

He is the representative of royalty and in his 
person brings forcibly to the minds of the Conserva- 
tives their allegiance to the English Crown, which he 
represents. 

The Conservatives, headed by the old and beloved 
Premier, Sir John Macdonold, hold the most important 
offices, and therefore do not want the present condition 
of affairs disturbed. The Orangemen must also be 
classed in this party, although many of them since the 
allowance of the Jesuits' Estates Bill have gone over 
to the Liberals. 

The Liberals comprise the "Young Canada" ele- 
ment of the population, and instead of being British 
colonists, would prefer to say : " We are Canadians " 
or possibly, " We are Americans." 

There is no aristocracy in Canada that is regarded 
by the people as constituting their natural superiors 
and rulers, and the Liberals are asking the question : 
" Why not elect our own Governor and Senators ? "" 



INDEPENDENCE. 97 

Expressions are now frequently used which would 
have been regarded as high treason before the Union 
Act. The desire for independence or a national 
ehange has been admitted, even by those newspapers 
which work in the interest of the government. The 
London Free Press, the Windsor Review, the St. 
Catharine Star, the Toronto Mail and numerous other 
papers see indications of independence. 

Since the organization of a national party, whose 
motto was " Canada First," the spirit of national inde- 
pendence has rapidly increased. The young Liberal 
Clubs in all parts of the Dominion are increasing their 
memberships even from the ranks of the Conserva- 
tives. The issue of independence has been frequently 
brought forward, and elections have taken place of 
candidates who were in favor of independence. 

There has been exhibited in Windsor, Ontario, a 
proposed Canadian flag of dark blue with a red square 
in the corner, in which is displayed a white beaver 
representing the Northwest territories, while in the 
blue field are seven stars representing the provinces. 

The French Nationalists constitute a third and in- 
dependent party, and side with that party in all politi- 
cal questions who will enable them to retain their 
ethnic and confessional autonomy. Those misunder- 
standings and differences which the inhabitants of 
Quebec have had so long with the Anglo-Canadians 
have not been dispelled by confederation. The 
growth of empire in the Northwest, and the ethnic in- 
fluence which always existed in their favor among the 
Half-breeds has raised new hopes. They have long 
maintained a French Catholic province on an English 
Protestant continent, and hope ere long to see it pro- 
moted into a nation. The leading papers in Quebec 
have frequently expressed this desire of the French 
Canadians, and in a recent article La Verite says : 

"Let us say it boldly — the ideal of the 'French 
Canadian people is not the ideal of the other races 



08 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

which to-day inhabit the land our fathers subdued for 
Christian civilization. Our ideal is the formation here, 
in this corner of the earth watered by the blood of our 
heroes, of a nation which shall perform on this con- 
tinent, the part France has played so long in Europe. 
Our aspiration is to found a nation which, socially, 
shall profess the Catholic faith and speak the French 
language. That is not and cannot be the aspiration of 
the other races. To say, then, that all the groups 
which constitute confederation are animated by one 
and the same aspiration is to utter a sounding phrase 
without political or historical meaning. For us the 
present form of government is not and cannot be the 
last word of our national existence. It is merely a 
road toward the goal we have in view. Let us never 
lose sight of our national destiny ; rather let us con- 
stantly prepare ourselves to fulfill it worthily at the 
hour decreed by Providence, which circumstances shall 
reveal to us." 

On the other hand, the Anglo-Canadians see that if 
they would establish a great nation they must abolish 
French institutions, the levying of tithes, and the 
maintenance of parochial schools by public money. 

These ethnic and religious differences retard the 
growth of independence and act as a drawback to 
annexation, for annexation is not likely to take place 
until after independence. 

Since Brazil has changed its government, and its 
de facto existence has been acknowledged, British 
America is the only country on the hemisphere not 
a republic. 

England's right to govern Canada is based wholly 
on the presumption that it is not able to govern itself. 
Is it not proper, then, that she should cease to play the 
part of a parent, by withdrawing that protection for 
which Ireland as well as Great Britain must pay ? 
Her indirect liabilities through keeping the Canadian 
connection are enormous, since their commercial policies 



ANNEXATION. 99 

are at right angles, and England is prevented from 
entering into whatever relations she pleases with the 
United States. 

When Canada is free and exists under a policy of 
peace and free commerce it will be a matter of history 
as to her ultimate destiny. But we can only conjec- 
ture that, after the French influence has been over- 
come by an increased population, the greater nation 
will absorb the smaller on the North American 
continent. 

ANNEXATION. 

Although Canada is practically sovereign — a " semi- 
sovereignty" — it has not the power to discharge external 
functions, and is not a state in an international posi- 
tion. Therefore, in exercising power given by the con- 
stitution, whereby "new states may be admitted by 
the Congress into the Union," 1 it is necessary for us to 
consider our international relations with England. 

The methods by which annexation may be brought 
about are : 

1. Conquest by the United States. 

2. Independence of Canada and cession of its terri- 
tory by its people. 

3. Cession of Canada by its people with the consent 
of Parliament and the Crown. 

4. Treaty arrangement between Great Britain and 
the United States, and the consent of the Canadian 
people. 

Behind the constitution there is a right to acquire 
territory by conquest, which is "an incident of sov- 
ereignty. " 2 This is a power that has always existed, 
but in the present, development of international law 
and human rights, it is only exercised in the subjection 
of uncivilized people and semi-states. 

1. Articled Sec. 3. 

2. 8 Story on Constitution, 159. 



100 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The interference of the United States in Canadian 
affairs would probably bring about a war with Eng- 
land, but other nations would not be likely to inter- 
fere in a movement in which they are not concerned, 
whereby the United States would prepare the way for 
that certain future advance in population and national 
prosperity. 

f If it had been our policy to conquor, Canada would 
have belonged to the United States long ago, since 
statesmen have often referred to the advisability of 
annexation. Mr. Clay, in a speech on the occupation 
of West Florida, said : " I am not, sir, in favor of 
cherishing the passion of conquest, but I must be 
permitted to conclude by declaring my hope to see, 
ere long, the New United States (if you will allow me 
the expression), embracing not only the old thirteen 
states but the entire country east of the Mississippi, 
including East Florida, and some of the territories to 
the north of us also." 

It is the peculiar duty of a Republic to recognize 
the rights of other peoples, and so endeavor to main- 
tain them. 

The second method is very simple, for as an inde- 
pendent state, Canada could rightfully cede her whole 
territory and unite her government with us without 
the interference of any foreign power. 

In treating the third method by which annexation 
might be accomplished, we must consider that Canada 
has not the power of making treaties with foreign 
states, which is an incident to sovereignty. But it 
might appoint a committee to treat with the United 
States, with the positive or tacit consent of the mother 
country, the conclusions of which might be accepted 
by the sovereign through a treaty. This method would 
depend upon the willingness of England to permit 
Canada to go forth from her protection, and differs 
from the fourth method in the source from which the 
proposals for annexation seem to eminate. It is found- 



ANNEXATION. 101 

ed on the theory that the people constitute the state 
and that from them must proceed any desire for a 
change. 

The negotiation of treaties between sovereigns, is a 
usual method of annexation, as was demonstrated in 
the annexation of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, of the 
Neopolitan Provinces to Italy, and of Savoy and Nice 
to S3P& e - faol l tho oe-easesSIie plebiscite of the peo- 
ple was obtained before the cession! were completed 

If England had the power to barter or give Canada 
without the will of the people, she might cede the ter- 
ritory to China or Russia ; and thus a great social dis- 
turbance would occur through difference in unities. 
Whereas the United States is the only country to* 
which Canada could properly be annexed. 

Now, as to the organization of the new government 
and relations. It would not be necessary to obtain the 
consent of each state in the Union for the admission of 
Canada, as long as there were a majority in Congress 
in favor of the union. This was demonstrated in the 
annexation of Texas. On the other hand, the Domin- 
ion could not cede the territory without the consent of 
the people of each province, for this would be a viola- 
tion of the principle which we have just seen. For the 
same reason, England has been unable to join New- 
foundland to the Dominion. 

Therefore, any province might declare its independ- 
ence and unite its government with us ; but it would 
be a violation of de jure rights under the Dominion, as 
the provinces have not sovereignty or the power to se- 
cede. This has been clearly demonstrated by the un- 
easiness of Nova Scotia since confederation. This- 
province was the first to propose the new government, 
but ft soon desired to withdraw from a union with its 
undesirable neighbors— a procedure which it found im- 
possible. 2 Lately this desire for a change has clearly 

"tr^-firte a aati fll Law," Woo to oy. Ap p H 
2. Hansard, 308, p. 1723. 



100 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

The interference of the United States in Canadian 
affairs would probably bring about a war with Eng- 
land, but other nations would not be likely to inter- 
fere in a movement in which they are not concerned, 
whereby the United States would prepare the way for 
that certain future advance in population and national 
prosperity. 

t If it had been our policy to conquor, Canada would 
have belonged to the United States long ago, since 
statesmen have often referred to the advisability of 
annexation. Mr. Clay, in a speech on the occupation 
of West Florida, said : " I am not, sir, in favor of 
cherishing the passion of conquest, but I must be 
permitted to conclude by declaring my hope to see, 
ere long, the New United States (if you will allow me 
the expression), embracing not only the old thirteen 
states but the entire country east of the Mississippi, 
including East Florida, and some of the territories to 
the north of us also." 

It is the peculiar duty of a Republic to recognize 
the rights of other peoples, and so endeavor to main- 
tain them. 

The second method is very simple, for as an inde- 
pendent state, Canada could rightfully cede her whole 
territory and unite her government with us without 
the interference of any foreign power. 

In treating the third method by which annexation 
might be accomplished, we must consider that Canada 
has not the power of making treaties with foreign 
states, which is an incident to sovereignty. But it 
might appoint a committee to treat with the United 
States, with the positive or tacit consent of the mother 
country, the conclusions of which might be accepted 
by the sovereign through a treaty. This method would 
depend upon the willingness of England to permit 
Canada to go forth from her protection, and differs 
from the fourth method in the source from which the 
proposals for annexation seem to eminate. It is found- 



ANNEXATION. 101 

ed on the theory that the people constitute the state 
and that from them must proceed any desire for a 
change. 

The negotiation of treaties between sovereigns, is a 
usual method of annexation, as was demonstrated in 
the annexation of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia, of the 
Neopolitan Provinces to Italy, and of Savoy and Nice 
to £E9P& e - *n - a& th cee-cases3he plebiscite of the peo- 
ple w*s obtained before the cession! were completed 

If England had the power to barter or give Canada 
without the will of the people, she might cede the ter- 
ritory to China or Russia ; and thus a great social dis- 
turbance would occur through difference in unities. 
Whereas the United States is the only country to 
which Canada could properly be annexed. 

Now, as to the organization of the new government 
and relations. It would not be necessary to obtain thfr 
consent of each state in the Union for the admission of 
Canada, as long as there were a majority in Congress 
in favor of the union. This was demonstrated in the 
annexation of Texas. On the other hand, the Domin- 
ion could not cede the territory without the consent of 
the people of each province, for this would be a viola- 
tion of the principle which we have just seen. For the 
same reason, England has been unable to join New- 
foundland to the Dominion. 

Therefore, any province might declare its independ- 
ence and unite its government with us ; but it would 
be a violation of de jure rights under the Dominion, as 
the provinces have not sovereignty or the power to se- 
cede. This has been clearly demonstrated by the un- 
easiness of Nova Scotia since confederation. This, 
province was the first to propose the new government, 
but itsoon desired to withdraw from a union with its 
undesirable neighbors— a procedure which it found im- 
possible. 8 Lately this desire for a change has clearly 

~Tr"~Iirt«E B a t ,i fl1 Law," Wootocy. App H ~ 
2. Hansard, 308, p. 1723. 



102 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

shown itself, nor would it be surprising if a proposition 
for annexation should come from this English province. 

The inhabitants of the ceded territory would be ad- 
mitted according to the principle of our federal consti- 
tution, into all the rights of citizens of the United 
States. The rights and obligations which belonged to 
each province before the union would be binding upon 
them or the government at Washington. Thus the debt 
of Canada would be assumed by the federal govern- 
ment, apportioned among the provinces as it was before 
the Dominion Act, or divided according to relative pop- 
ulation. The annexed territory would retain all its pri- 
vate rights of property in the soil, 1 and the public 
buildings would belong to the province in which they 
are situated. 

Having discussed the methods of annexation the 
next question is its practicability. On casting a retro- 
spective eye on the progress of Canada we cannot but 
be struck with the difficulties it has had to encounter 
before attaining its present position on the threshold of 
a new existence. It is governed by institutions and 
laws similar to our own, and inhabited by a people, 
many of whom have a like origin, education and reli- 
gion with ourselves. But we have seen differences 
between the populations which can only be gradually 
■eliminated by social fusion. The question of religion 
in state and common schools would be a source of dis- 
cussion and controversy, since we are apt to maintain 
our belief in non-sectarianism as a policy superior to 
that of Canada. 

We must not look to the provinces of Quebec, On- 
tario and those on the Atlantic, whose future can only 
be prophesied by the historic past, for a beneficial 
union with us, but to the wonderfully fertile and 
sparsely populated country extending to the Pacific. 
The west and northwest are receiving a tide of immi- 
gration which must, through similarity in ethnical 

1.1 Wheaton, 279. 



ANNEXATION. 10$ 

character, develop social institutions suitable for an 
intimate alliance with us. 

The territory of the Dominion is contiguous, and 
annexation, if not necessary, would at least permit the 
extension of our commerce with perfect freedom and 
security. Tts numerous harbors, large rivers and com- 
munications connect its people with our own, and, by 
the representative system and the avoidance of sec- 
tional prejudices and factions, the United States 
though of vast extent, might with perfect harmony 
and security expand into an entire North American 
Republic. 



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106 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

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, 8S*fc 







THE 



DOMINION OF CANADA. 



A STODT OF ANNEXATION. 



A DISSERTATION IN PART FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SCHOOL OF 

POLITICAL SCDSNCE, COLUMBIA 

COLLEGE. 



WILLIAM BENFOKD AITKEN, M, A. col. 



NEW YORK : 
HENRY K. VAN SICLEN, 

BIBLIOPOLE, 

259 West 44th Stbeet. 
1890. 



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